اسلام

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بخشی از مجموعه مقاله‌های: اسلام اصول توحید · نبوت · معاد خاص تشیع: امامت · عدل فروع نماز · روزه · زکات · حج · جهاد خاص تشیع: خمس · امر به معروف · نهی از منکر · تولی · تبری منابع اسلامی قرآن · عقل · سنت (حدیث) شخصیت‌ها محمد · علی · فاطمه · اهل بیت · خلفای راشدین · امامان شیعه · صحابهٔ محمد مذاهب تسنن · تشیع · تصوف علوم حدیث · تفسیر · فقه · کلام · فلسفه · عرفان تاریخ امویان · عباسیان · فاطمیان · مملوکان · عثمانیان · صفویان · آخرالزمان جغرافیا مکه · مدینه · بیت‌المقدس · کوفه · نجف · کربلا · سامرا · کاظمین · مشهد · قم · شیراز · دمشق · جهان اسلام(کشورهای اسلامی) · لباس های اسلامی حجاب اسلامی · چادر عربی · برقع · روبنده · دشداش · روسری · چادر · فرهنگ و جامعه درگاه اسلام    اسلام، دینی یکتاپرستانهو از دین‌های ابراهیمی است. به پیروان اسلام «مسلمان» می‌گویند. هم‌اکنون اسلام از دید شمار رسمی پیروان، در جایگاه دوم در جهان جای دارد. مسلمانان براین باورند که خداوند، قرآن را به محمد از طریق فرشته ای به نام جبرئیل فروفرستاده‌است. به باور مسلمانان خدا بر بسیاری از پیامبران، وحی فرستاده و محمد آخرین آنان است. مسلمانان محمد را اعاده‌کننده ایمان توحیدی خالص ابراهیم، موسی، عیسی و دیگر پیامبران می‌دانند و معتقدند که اسلام کامل‌ترین و آخرین آیین الهی است. اسلام به معنی تسلیم در برابر خداست. اسلام دین قانون و عمل است، نه ریاضت و رهبانیت. اسلام یک دین میانه‌رو است؛ تشویق به کمک به فقیران می‌کند ولی تشویق به ترک دنیا نمی‌کند. اسلام بر رفتار درست تاکید می‌کند: شراب‌خواری و قمار منع شده‌اند و مسلمان موظف است از خوردن غذای حرام خودداری کند. مسلمان می‌تواند مستقیماً با خدا راز و نیاز کند و لزوماً نیازی به واسطه فیض نیست. مسجد تنها مکان تجمع است و مانند کلیسا دارای قدرت مذهبی نیست. اسلام، برخلاف یهودیت، پس از ظهور به سرعت دینی جهانی می‌شود و مردم را به مسلمان‌شدن تشویق می‌کند ولی اصرار زیادی بر مسلمان‌کردن ندارد. واژه شناسی اسلام در زبان عربی از ریشه (س-ل-م) است و معنی لغوی این ریشه «سالم شدن» و «رهایی یافتن از آفات» است. واژه «سلام» نیز مشتق شده از همین ریشه است. با توجه به معنی اسلام، «مسلم» (در فارسی: مسلمان) یعنی کسی که خدا را خالصانه و بی ریا می‌پرستد و اختیار خود را تسلیم امر و نهی او می‌کند. باورها معارف اسلامی به سه بخش کلی تقسیم می‌شوند: اصول عقاید: باورهای بنیادین فکری (اصول دین یا عقاید) که توحید، اساسی ترین آنها است. اخلاق: توصیه‌های اخلاقی که برخی از آنها، عبارتند از: عدالت، شجاعت و عفت. احکام فقهی: فرامین عملی و عبادی که اساسی ترین آنها (فروع دین یا فقه اصغر) هستند. فرامین عملی آداب، مناسک و عبادات را دربرمی‌گیرد. عقاید را در علم کلام، احکام را در علم فقه و اخلاق را در علم اخلاق شرح و بسط می‌دهند. اصول عقاید نوشتار اصلی: اصول دین از بنیادی‌ترین باورهای مسلمانان تحت عنوان اصول دین یاد می‌شود. اصول دین نزد مسلمانان سه عدد هستند اعتقاد به هر کدام از این اصول، باورهایی را به عنوان زیر شاخه موجب می‌شود: توحید: یعنی اعتقاد به یگانگی خداوند و اعتقاد به صفات او. نبوت: یعنی اعتقاد به ضرورت فرستادن پیامبران از سوی خداوند برای راهنمایی بشر.(و اعتقاد به پیامبری محمد). معاد: یعنی اعتقاد به وجود جهانی که بعد از فروپاشی این جهان کنونی، نمایان می‌شود و در آن جهان نیکان و بد کرداران به سزای کردار خویش می‌رسند. در میان این اصول آنچه ریشه بقیه‌است، توحید می‌باشد، به طوری که دین شناسان مسلمان می‌کوشند تا با اثبات آن بقیه اصول و فروع را ثابت کنند شیعیان علاوه بر این سه اصل، به عدل و امامت نیز به عنوان اصلهای چهارم و پنجم معتقدند. خدا بسم الله الرحمن الرحیم، نخستین آیه قرآن نوشتار اصلی: الله الله نام ویژهٔ خدای یکتا در قرآن و نوشتارهای اسلامی است. با این حال فارسی‌زبانان معمولاً از واژهٔ خدا استفاده می‌کنند. به باور مسلمانان خداوند در اسلام به زبان اصلی که همان زبان عربی فصیح (زبان قرآن) است ۱۰۰۱ نام دارد که یک نام خداوند، اسم اعظم است. بیشتر اسامی خدا، در اسلام، نشان‌دهندهٔ برتری مطلق است. شناخت خداوند اصلی ترین باور مسلمانان است و همین موضوع است که این دین را در میان سایر ادیان ابراهیمی متمایز ساخته. خلاصه باور مسلمانان به خدا را می‌توان در جمله‌ای از قرآن دید که در آن گفته می‌شود: ِ لَیْسَ کَمِثْلِهِ شَیْ‏ءٌ وَ هُوَ السَّمیعُ الْبَصیر (ترجمه: هیچ چیز همانند او نیست و او شنوا و بیناست)[۴۲–۱۱] که در تفسیر آن از علی بن ابی طالب نقل شده که آن را توصیف قابل قبول خدا دانسته‌است و مفسرین هم به تبعیت از وی گفته‌اند: «این جمله در حقیقت پایه اصلی شناخت تمام صفات خدا است که بدون توجه به آن به هیچیک از اوصاف پروردگار نمی‌توان پی برد» شهادتین شهادتین، ورودی کاخ توپ‌قاپی در استانبول نوشتار اصلی: شهادتین پذیرش اسلام از سه روش امکان دارد: گفتن شهادتین، با انجام دادن کارهای ویژه مسلمانان، اسلام با پیروی از اعمال مسلمانان. شهادتین: «اشهد ان لا اله الا الله» و«اشهد ان محمدرسول الله» قرآن بخش نخست سوره نور از کتاب قرآن نوشتار اصلی: قرآن قرآن، کتاب مقدس مسلمان است و به زبان عربی نوشته شده‌است، که طبق مندرجات آن و باور مسلمانان توسط وحی الهی به محمد فروفرستاده شد. به اعتقاد مسمانان «قرآن وحی نامه اعجازآمیز الهی است، که به زبان عربی واژه به واژه توسط فرشته وحی، جبرئیل امین، از جانب خداوند و از لوح محفوظ بر قلب و زبان پیامبر اسلام هم اجمالاً یکباره، و هم کم‌کم در طول ۲۳ سال نازل شده‌است.» این کتاب معتبرترین متن دینی نزد مسلمانان است و مسلمانان آن را «معجزه» و «سند اثبات پیامبری» محمد می‌دانند. اغلب مذاهب اسلامی بر درستی متن آن اتفاق نظر دارند و اختلافات در نحوه خواندن متن، تفسیر و گاهی، ترتیب آن است. میزان این اتفاق نظر به اندازه‌ایست که شیعیان دوازده‌امامی ایران و وهابیان عربستان رسم‌الخط واحدی از قرآن را به‌کار می‌برند. مسلمانان روی بی‌خطابودن قرآن تاکید دارند. مفسرین اهل سنت بصورت تاریخی همواره معتقد بودند که آیات قرآنی که در امروزه در دست ما است دقیقاً همان چیزی است که محمد بیان کرده‌است و هیچگونه تغییری اعم از حذف یا اضافه در آن صورت نگرفته‌است. مسلمانان قرآن را کتاب مقدس دین خود می‌دانند و از آن با القابی چون «کریم» و «مجید» یاد می‌کنند. قرآن، خود را به عنوان «لوح حفاظت‌شده» ((به عربی: «اللَوح المحفوظ»)‏) می‌خواند.∗ خاتمیت اسلام از دیدگاه مسلمانان، اسلام خاتم ادیان الهی است. خاتمیت به این معناست که اسلام در بر دارنده تمام آن مطالبی است که باید از طریق وحی برای انسان بیان شود. {قرآن دین اسلام را به عنوان خاتم ادیان الهی معرفی می‌کند: إِنَّ هذَا الْقُرْآنَ یهْدِی لِلَّتِی هِی أَقْوَمُ. یعنی اگر شریعت اسلام را در یکسو و سایر شرایع آسمانی را که برای سراسر حیات بشر در دورانهای گذشته مقدّر شده‌است در طرف دیگری بگذاریم، شریعت اسلام از همه آنها استوارتر است که این خود معنی خاتمیت و شریعت آخرین است. قُلْ إِنَّنِی هَدانِی رَبِّی إِلی‏ صِراطٍ مُسْتَقِیمٍ دِیناً قِیماً مِلَّةَ إِبْراهِیمَ حَنِیفاً وَ ما کانَ مِنَ الْمُشْرِکِین‏. به جهانیان بگو: پروردگار مرا به راهی راست رهبری فرموده و آن دینی است قیم و زوال‏ناپذیر که بنیادش از همان سنت و رویه ابراهیم است. در سوره بینه پس از آنکه می‏فرماید "مشرکین دست از عقیده باطل خود برنمی‌دارند جز آنکه فرستاده خدا با آیات و بینات فرا رسد و آیات کتاب قیم را برایشان بخواند. اینان دستوری ندارند جز آنکه خدای را با نیت پاک پرستش کنند، نماز بخوانند و...، می‌فرماید: ذلِکَ دِینُ الْقَیمَة. این آیین –اسلام- دینی است قیم و زوال‏ناپذیر. در سوره آل عمران: وَ مَنْ یبْتَغِ غَیرَ الْإِسْلامِ دِیناً فَلَنْ یقْبَلَ مِنْهُ وَ هُوَ فِی الْآخِرَةِ مِنَ الْخاسِرِین‏. هر که جز آیین اسلام در جستجوی آیین دگر آید، تا اید و انقراض جهان از او پذیرفته نیست و بروز رستاخیز از زیان‏کاران است. در سوره مائده: الْیوْمَ أَکْمَلْتُ لَکُمْ دِینَکُمْ وَ أَتْمَمْتُ عَلَیکُمْ نِعْمَتِی وَ رَضِیتُ لَکُمُ الْإِسْلامَ دِیناً. امروز که پیامبر اسلام عهده‏دار هدایت بشر است، دین را برای شما تکمیل و نعمت را برای شما تمام کردم، و خشنودم که برای همیشه بر دین اسلام باقی باشید. روشن است که آیات فوق آیین اسلام را پابرجاترین راه هدایت و دین قیم و زوال‏ناپذیر و گرویدن به غیر آن را تا انقراض جهان غیرقابل‌قبول دانسته و او را کمال و بلوغ دیانت و تمام نعمت معرفی کرده‌است. در روایاتی از ائمه اسلام: نیز به ابدیت آیین اسلام تصریح شده‌است از جمله علی بن ابیطالب گوید: إِنَّ هَذَا الْإِسْلَامَ دِینُ اللَّهِ الَّذِی اصْطَفَاهُ لِنَفْسِهِ... ثُمَّ جَعَلَهُ لَا انْفِصَامَ لِعُرْوَتِهِ وَ لَا فَکَّ لِحَلْقَتِهِ وَ لَا انْهِدَامَ لِأَسَاسِهِ وَ لَا زَوَالَ لِدَعَائِمِهِ وَ لَا انْقِلَاعَ لِشَجَرَتِهِ وَ لَا انْقِطَاعَ لِمُدَّتِهِ} اسلام همان آیینی است که پروردگار بزرگ آن را در میان ادیان برگزیده و قوانین آن را به اندازه‏ای استوار فرموده که دستاویز آن پایان ناپذیر و حلقه‏اش گسستنی نیست. اساس و بنیادش انهدام نمی‏پذیرد و ارکانش زایل و نابود نمی‏گردد. درختش هرگز از ریشه بیرون نیاید [این چنین] مدنش نیز هیچ وقت پایان نمی‌پذیرید. فروع عملیه تقویم و اوقات شرعی گردش ماه، اساس تقویم اسلامی اوقات شرعی، به زمانهای مشخص و دقیقی از شبانه روز، گفته می‌شود که شخص دین‌دار، در آن زمان‌ها، رفتار دینی زماندار خود را انجام می‌دهد. محاسبه دقیق زمان‌های شرعی، از دیرباز، نزد منجمان، رایج بوده‌است. اذان نوشتار اصلی: اذان محمد پس از فتح مکه بلال حبشی، یک برده سیاه آزاد شده، را مأمور کرد که بر بام کعبه اذان بگوید. اذان به شیوه کنونی اهل تسنن اهل سنت، عقیده دارند که نخستین بار، اذان در مدینه خوانده شد و حمزه این پیشنهاد را به محمّد داد. در حالی که برخی دیگر، طبل، بوق یا زنگ را برای دعوت مردم به نماز، پیشنهاد کرده بودند.[نیازمند منبع] اهل سنت، همچنین بر این باور هستند که بعضی عبارات اذان، مانند «الصلوة خیر من النوم» را عمر بن خطاب افزوده‌است. این در حالی است که شیعیان اذان را عبادتی می‌دانند که از جانب خدا تعیین گردیده و تغییر در جملات اذان را بدعت می‌دانند، شیعیان همچنین از لفظ اشهد ان علی ولی الله و اشهد ان علی حجت الله در اذان استفاده می‌کنند ولی هیچ دلیلی از پیامبر مبنی بر کاربرد این الفاظ در نماز ثابت نشده است همچنین عقیده شیعه این است که محمّد پیش از هجرت، برای تمام نمازهای واجب خود، اذان می‌گفته‌است. در ایران، اغلب اذان را در آواز بیات ترک در گوشه روح‌الارواح می‌خوانده‌اند. در مراسم تعزیه، اگر اذان گفته شود، به آواز کردی است. اولین اذان سال در یکم هجری و در مدینه بود. در مسند ابوداود به اسناد صحیح از عبدالله پسر زید پسر عبد ربه انصاری آمده که او برای اولین بار پیشنهاد اذان را به محمد داده و محمد از او پذیرفته است. تاریخ اسلام نوشتار اصلی: تاریخ اسلام محمد نوشتار اصلی: محمد ابوالقاسم محمد بن عبدالله بن عبدالمطلب بن هاشم (‎۵۷۰ - ۶۳۲)، بنیان‌گذار و پیامبر دین اسلام است. درباره زندگی محمد گزارش‌های فراوان و روشنی در متون تاریخی آمده‌است، ولی مانند هر شخصیت مهم تاریخی پیش از دنیای مدرن، تمام جزئیات زندگی او مشخص نیست. از این‌روی که محمد، از تأثیرگذارترین شخصیت‌های تاریخ بشری است؛ زندگانی، اعمال و افکار او در طی قرن‌ها، بین موافقان و مخالفانش محل اختلاف و منازعه بوده‌است. در دوران جوانی‌اش، او را امانت‌دار می‌دانستند و «محمد امین» خطاب می‌کردند. در قرون وسطی، محمد در تصور عمومی غربیان بت یا خدایی پنداشته می‌شد که توسط مسلمانان پرستیده می‌شود. پس از اصلاحات پروتستانی، تصور غرب از محمد تغییر کرد، و در نگاه عمومی آنان به شخصی متقلب، مکار و خودخواه تبدیل شد. پیش از پیامبری در جوانی همراه گروهی از جوانان قبایل ده‌گانه مکه، درصدد برآمده بودند تا با ایجاد گروهی از پاسبان‌های داوطلب، اجازه ندهند تا حق ستم‌دیدگان توسط ستم‌کاران پایمال شود. نام پیمان این نیروهای داوطلب حلف‌الفضول (پیمان جوانمردان)، و محمد از شمار موسسان آن بود. او به این موضوع، که در جوانی در چنین نیرویی عضویت داشته‌است افتخار می‌کرد. پیامبری در مکه خدیجه همسرش، نخستین کسی بود که به وی ایمان آورد و پس از وی علی بن ابیطالب پسر عمو، و زید بن حارث پسر خوانده‌اش. شیعیان بر این باورند که طبق اسناد و مدارکی؛ محمد بارها در معرض عموم علی را به عنوان جانشین خود انتخاب کرده که از مهمترین این اسناد به «زمان دعوت از نزدیکان» (عشیره الاقربین)، و به آخرین سفر حج در غدیر خم اشاره می‌کنند و می‌گویند که در آن زمان حتی عمر و ابوبکر و دیگر صحابه با علی بیعت کرده‌اند. سنی‌ها این قضیه را منکرند، ولی علی را نیز همچون دیگر صحابه محترم می‌شمارند. و نیز گفته می‌شود که جعفر ابن ابوطالب، زید (تنها مسلمانی که بجز محمد، نامش در قرآن آمده)، ابوذر، ابوبکر و زبیر نیز از زمره دیگر نخست ایمان آورندگان به اسلام بودند. اولین مسلمانان نوشتار اصلی: اولین مسلمانان پس از شخص محمد امین پیامبر اسلام اولین زن، خدیجه همسر وی، و اولین مرد، علی امام اول شیعیان، و سپس ابابکر، زید بن حارث، اباذر غفاری، سعد بن ابی‌وقاص، لبابه دختر حارث، عبدالرحمن بن عوف، ابوعبیده جراح، عبدالله بن مسعود، عمار بن یاسر و سمیه مادر وی، در منابع با اختلاف در پسی و پیشی ذکر شده‌اند. محمد تا سه سال پس از بعثت دعوت خود را آشکار نکرد. اولین گروهی که محمد آن‌ها را آشکارا به اسلام دعوت نمود، بستگان خودش بودند. پس از آن به کوه صفا رفت، و تمام قریش را به پذیرش اسلام فراخواند. پس از مدتی سران قریش تصمیم به مقابله با وی گرفتند. اولین اقدام آن‌ها گفتگو با ابوطالب بود. سران قریش پس از آنکه کمک خواستن از ابوطالب را بی‌هوده دیدند، تصمیم به یاری جستن از یهودیان مدینه گرفتند، ایشان، سه سؤال را برای پرسش از محمد، مطرح کردند و گفتند اگر وی پاسخ را بداند، در پیامبری او شکی نیست. محمد درست زمانی که سران قریش احساس پیروزی می‌کردند، پاسخ آن پرسشها را داد. پیامبری در یثرب گاهشمار زندگی محمد در مدینه رویدادهای مهم در دوران زندگی محمد در مدینه ۶۱۸ جنگ داخلی مدینه ۶۲۲ هجرت ۶۲۲ معراج ۶۲۴ غزوه بدر: شکست اهل مکه از مسلمانان ۶۲۴ شکست بنی‌قینقاع ۶۲۵ غزوه احد: شکست مسلمانان از اهل مکه ۶۲۵ شکست بنی‌نضیر ۶۲۷ غزوه احزاب ۶۲۷ شکست بنی‌قریظه ۶۲۸ صلح حدیبیه ۶۲۸ دسترسی به کعبه ۶۲۸ غزوه خیبر ۶۲۹ نخستین سفر حج ۶۲۹ غزوه مؤته ۶۳۰ فتح مکه ۶۳۰ غزوه حنین ۶۳۰ غزوه طائف ۶۳۱ تسلط بر بیشتر شبه‌جزیره عربستان ۶۳۲ جنگ با مسیحیان تبوک ۶۳۲ حجةالوداع ۶۳۲ درگذشت بر پایهٔ روایت‌های اسلامی، قریشیان برای کشتن محمد نقشه‌ای را طرح کردند. محمد به کمک علی ایشان را گمراه کرد، و به همراه ابوبکر از مکه بیرون رفت. به این سان، در سال ۶۲۲ میلادی (برابر با سال سیزدهم پس از آغاز دعوت خود) وی به مدینه که آبادی بزرگی بود هجرت کرد. همراهانی که با وی از مکه به مدینه مهاجرت کردند مهاجران، و مردم یثرب که پیامبر و مهاجران را یاری رسانده بودند انصار نامیده شدند. این هجرت مبدا تقویم اسلامی شد. به نوشته محمود طالقانی مسلمانان، معتقد به ذکر مشخصات پیامبری محمد در کتاب‌های مقدس پیش از او هستند، در حالی که یهودیان و مسیحیان چنین موضوعی را نپذیرفتند. او سبب هجرت اقوامی از یهودیان را به سرزمین حجاز، و سکونت در دهکدهٔ گمنام و بی نام و نشان یثرب را ناشی از همین پیش‌بینی‌ها و پیش‌گویی‌ها می‌داند. مرگ محمد در حجةالوداع، اضافه کردن ماه‌های اضافی را ممنوع می‌کند. (نتیجه اینکه هر سال، فقط ۱۲ ماه، خواهد داشت). نگاره‌ای از نسخه رونوشت عثمانی از کتاب «آثار الباقیه» (نگارنده: ابوریحان بیرونی) متعلق به قرن ۱۷ میلادی. محمد چند ماه پس از حجة الوداع مریض شد، و چند روزی از سردرد و ضعف رنج برد. در روزی دوشنبه که محمد سخت بیمار بود و نتوانست از خانه بیرون رود، ابوبکر به پیش‌نمازی با مسلمانان نماز خواند. محمد سرانجام در همان روز دوشنبه ۲۸ صفر برابر با ۸ ژوئن ۶۳۲، در حالی که ۶۳ سال زیسته بود از دنیا رفت. پس از درگذشت محمد، ابوبکر وارد مسجد شد و آیه‌ای از قرآن را با این مضمون خواند: «محمد نیست مگر فرستاده‌ای که پیش از او فرستادگان آمده و رفته‌اند؛ پس آیا اگر او بمیرد و یا کشته شود به سوی گذشتگان‌تان بازخواهید گشت؟ و هر کس بازگردد به خدا آسیبی نمی‌زند، و خدا سپاس‌گزاران را پاداش می‌دهد. سپس گفت: ای مردم، هر کس محمد را می‌پرستد، پس بداند همانا محمد مرده است و هر کس خدای محمّد را می‌پرستد، بداند که او زنده‌ای است که هرگز نمی‌میرد. او را در خانه عایشه همسرش دفن کردند. مسجدی که بعدها به محل دفنش افزوده شد، به زیارتگاه مسلمانان تبدیل شد.»[آل‌عمران ۱۴۴] خلفای راشدین نوشتار اصلی: خلفای راشدین گستره قلمروی اسلامی      در زمان محمد (۶۲۲–۶۳۲)      در زمان خلفای راشدین (۶۳۲–۶۶۱)      در زمان بنی‌امیه (۶۶۱–۷۵۰) ابوبکر، از صحابه و دوستان محمد، برای نخستین بار، لقب «صدیق» را از او دریافت کرد. او، هنگامی که اسلام را پذیرفت، حدود ۴۰ سال سن داشت. پس از درگذشت محمد، اتحاد میان مهاجران، به خصوص زمینه‌سازی عمر و ابوعبیده بن جراح، کار را برای تصدی مقام خلافت توسط ابوبکر، هموار کرد. هر چند منذر بن ارقم در دفاع از علی بن ابیطالب سخن راند، ولی عدم حضور بنی هاشم باعث شد تا سرانجام، در حالی که علی بن ابیطالب، به تغسیل و تدفین ایشان مشغول بود اهل سقیفه کار را تمام کرده و از هر عملی که موجب سستی پایه‌های بیعت با ابوبکر شود، جلوگیری کنند. عمر بن خطاب (به عربی: ابو حفص عمر بن الخطاب بن نفيل بن عبد العزي)‏، از قدرتمندترین خلفای راشدین و از بزرگترین فرمانروایان مسلمان در طول تاریخ اسلام می‌باشد که تحت فرمان او، سرزمین بین‌النهرین و سوریه را فتح شده و استیلای بر پارس و مصر آغاز شد.. عمر پس از ابوبکر در سال ۶۳۴ میلادی، به خلافت رسید و نخستین کسی بود که لقب «امیرالمؤمنین» را برای خود برگزید. در منابع اهل تسنن ادعا شده است، در سال هفتم پس از مرگ محمد، عمر با ام کلثوم دختر علی ابن ابی طالب ازدواج کرد. ولی شیعیان ادعا می‌کنند که عمر قاتل فاطمه زهرا است و علی دخترش را هرگز به ازدواج قاتل همسرش درنیاورد. عمر بن خطاب، در طول ده سال خلافت خود، زندگی اقتصادی ساده‌ای داشت و از تجمل گرایی سخت متنفر بود. بارها کارگزاران خود را به دلیل تجمل گرایی برکنار، توبیخ یا جریمه کرد[نیازمند منبع]. از جمله خصوصیات عمر بن خطاب سختگیری او در مورد غیر عرب بود؛ به عنوان مثال چنانچه در منابع اهل سنت ذکر شده‌است وی دستور داده بود که سهم بیت المال غیر عرب‌ها برابر سهم بردگانِ عرب باشد و نیز اگر مرد عرب از عجم زن گرفت و بچه‌ای از این ازدواج به دنیا آمد، چنانچه آن بچه در بلاد عرب به دنیا بیاید از پدرش ارث می‌برد و اگر در سرزمین غیر عرب به دنیا بیاید از پدرش ارث نمی‌برد ویا از ورود غیر عرب‌ها به پایتخت حکومت اسلامی که شعار برابری نژادها را داشت منع کرد او توسط یک ایرانی به نام پیروز نهاوندی کشته شود. عمر، در اخرین روزهای عمر خود، شش تن از صحابه را مامور نمود تا در مدت سه روز خلیفه سوم را تعیین کنند. این شش تن، عبارت بودند از: علی بن ابیطالب، عثمان بن عفان، عبدالرحمن بن عوف، زبیر بن عوام، طلحة بن عبید اللّه و سعد بن ابی‌وقاص. عمر چنین دستور داد که:«اگر چهار نفر نظری دادند و دو نفر مخالف شدند، آن دو نفر را گردن بزن و اگر سه نفر توافق کردند و سه نفر مخالفت نمودند، سه نفری که عبد الرحمان در میان ایشان نیست، گردن بزن، و اگر سه روز گذشت و بر کسی توافق حاصل نکردند، همه ایشان را گردن بزن». در این سه روز مذاکرات زیادی انجام شد و نتیجه بین علی وعثمان مردّد شد. سرانجام، عبدالرحمن، عثمان را انتخاب کرد و عثمان، به خلافت رسید. بخشش فراوان عثمان از بیت المال به خویشاوندانش که پیشاپیش توسط خلیفهٔ دوم پیش بینی شده بود، و مال اندوزی او، از علل طغیان مردم علیه او به شمار می‌رود. علاوه بر این دلایل، علی بن ابیطالب، بی تابی مردم در برافکندن عثمان از خلافت را دلیل دیگری بر قتل عثمان می‌داند. پس از کشته شدن عثمان به دست شورشیانی از مصر و کوفه و بصره، نظرها بر علی و طلحه بود. در این میان اهالی مصر متمایل به طلحه بودند و انصار، بصریان و کوفیان تمایل بر خلافت علی داشتند. سرانجام، ابوالحسن علی ابن ابی طالب در ۱۹ ذیحجه سال ۳۵ برابر ۱۸ ژوئن ۶۵۶، به خلافت برگزیده شد. علی علاوه بر اینکه در مسائل شرعی (به‌خاطر وقوف بسیار زیاد او بر قرآن و سنت) و در فقه، تفسیر، سیاست، محل رجوع مسلمین (به خصوص خلیفه دوم) بود در سخنوری و ادبیات نیز چیره بود. مرتضی مطهری به نقل از محمد عبده سخن او را شیواترین سخن پس از قرآن می‌داند. به طوری که وابستگان بنی امیه، گفتارش را از حفظ می‌کردند، تا بیانشان شیوا شود.∗ بخشی از گفتارها و نوشتارهای وی در کتابی به نام نهج البلاغه جمع آوری شد. به گفتهٔ اروینگ، علی، شخصی دلیر، سخنور و بخشنده بود. خلفای اموی، عباسی و فاطمی نوشتارهای اصلی: امویان، خلافت عباسیان، و خلفای فاطمی پس از صلح حسن و معاویه، حکومت به بنی امیه و سپس به بنی عباس رسید. عبدالرحمان سوم و جانشینانش در آندلس، فاطمیان، حفصیان و مرینیان نیز خود را جانشین محمد می‌دانستند. سلاطین عثمانی هیچ‌گاه رسماً خلیفه نبودند. تنها عبدالمجید دوم از ۱۹۲۲ تا ۱۹۴۴ خود را خلیفه تمامی مسلمانان خواند. مذاهب اسلامی نوشتار اصلی: مذاهب اسلامی مذاهب اسلامی در یک نگاه مسلمانان به دو مذهب عمده شیعه و سنی بخش می‌شوند. هر یک از این دو فرقه انشعاباتی دارند. برای نمونه صوفی‌گری در میان شیعه و سنی وجود دارد. شیعه نوشتار اصلی: شیعه شیعیان بر این باورند که امام و جانشین پیامبر اسلام از راه نص شرعی تعیین می‌شود و امامت علی، نخستین امام شیعیان و دیگر امامان شیعه نیز از راه نص شرعی ثابت شده‌است. اصول دین در تشیّع پنج‌گانه‌است و علاوه بر سه اصل دین توحید، نبوت و معاد، به دو اصل دیگر یعنی عدل و امامت نیز باور دارند: عدل:یعنی اعتقاد به عدالت خدا امامت:یعنی اعتقاد به ضرورت فرستادن امامان از سوی خدا برای راهنمایی بشر. مهم‌ترین مذاهب شیعه، عبارتند از دوازده‌امامی، اسماعیلیه، زیدیه، کیسانیه، واقفیه و فطحیه. اهل سنت نوشتار اصلی: سنی نقشه پراکندگی مذهبی در میان کشورهای اسلامی اهل سنت بر این باورند محمد، پیامبر اسلام، پس از خود جانشینی تعیین نکرد و پس از فوت محمد مسلمانان آن زمان بر اساس شورا یک تن را به عنوان خلیفه مسلمین انتخاب کرده‌اند.[نیازمند منبع] در آغاز در سقیفهٔ بنی ساعده، ابوبکر را که از صحابه (یاران) و نزدیکان محمد بود و در میان مسلمانان محبوبیت و اعتبار زیادی داشت، برای خلافت پس از محمد بر جامعه نوبنیاد مسلمانان انتخاب کردند. سنیان به چهار مکتب فقهی عمده که عبارتند از: حنفی، مالکی، شافعی و حنبلی تقسیم می‌گردند. دیگر فرقه‌های اسلامی نوشتار اصلی: خوارج نوشتار اصلی: تصوف اسلام در جهان پیامبر اسلام زمانی که در مدینه بود، برای سران امپراتوری‌های جهان نامه نگاری کرد و آنها را به اسلام دعوت نمود. یکی از این نامه‌ها خطاب به خسرو پرویز شاه ایران بود. پس از درگذشت محمد، مسلمانان در زمان خلیفه دوم به فرمان عمر، به ایران حمله کردند. و طی تقریباً ۱۰ سال ایران جز نواحی گیلان و مازندران گشوده شد. اسلام به سرزمین‌هایی با زبان و فرهنگ متفاوت پا گذاشت. مردمان این سرزمین‌ها که ندای برابری و بالندگی اسلام آنان را جذب کرده بود، برای فهم بیش‌تر کلام خدا به فراگیری زبان عربی پرداختند. به این ترتیب، برای نخستین‌بار یک زبان بین‌المللی در گسترهٔ وسیعی از جهان رایج شد که به گسترش دانش کمک زیادی کرد. زبان مشترک باعث شد که هیچ دانشمندی در سرزمین‌های اسلامی، احساس غربت نکند و برای دانش‌اندوزی به شهرهای مختلف سفر کند. نگارش کتاب به زبان عربی باعث شد هر دانشمندی از دستاوردهای علمی دانشمندان دیگر آگاه شود و ارتباط علمی، که برای پیشرفت دانش اهمیت زیادی دارد، امکان پذیر شود. ترجمهٔ آثار علمی تمدن‌های پیشین به عربی باعث شد که برای نخستین بار بخش عمده‌ای از دستاوردهای علمی و فرهنگی بشر تا آن زمان، کنار هم قرار گیرد. جدول کشورهای اسلامی بر اساس جمعیت رتبه کشور جمعیت نسبت جمعیت مسلمان‌ها مذهب فرقه ۱ اندونزی ۲۲۸٬۵۸۲٬۰۰۰ ۸۶٫۱٪ سنی شافعی ۲ پاکستان ۱۷۲٬۸۰۰٬۰۰۰ ۹۷٪ سنی/شیعه حنفی/جعفری ۳ بنگلادش ۱۶۲٬۲۲۱٬۰۰۰ ۸۹٪ سنی حنفی ۴ نیجریه ۱۵۴٬۲۷۹٬۰۰۰ ۵۰٪ سنی مالکی ۵ مصر ۷۷٬۱۰۰٬۰۰۰ ۹۰٪ سنی شافعی ۶ ترکیه ۷۱٬۵۱۷٬۱۰۰ ۹۹٫۸٪ سنی علوی/حنفی ۷ ایران ۷۳٬۴۹۵٬۷۸۲ ۹۸٪ شیعه/سنی جعفری/حنفی ۸ سودان ۳۹٬۳۷۹٬۳۵۸ ۷۰٪ سنی مالکی ۹ الجزایر ۳۳٬۷۶۹٬۶۶۹ ۹۹٪ سنی مالکی ۱۰ افغانستان ۳۲٬۷۳۸٬۳۷۶ ۹۹٪ شیعه/سنی جعفری/حنفی ۱۱ مراکش ۳۳٬۷۲۳٬۴۱۸ ۹۹٪ سنی مالکی ۱۲ عراق ۳۱٬۲۳۴٬۰۰۰ ۹۷٪ شیعه/سنی جعفری/حنفی ۱۳ مالزی ۲۷٬۷۳۰٬۰۰۰ ۶۰٫۴٪ سنی شافعی ۱۴ عربستان سعودی ۲۷٬۶۰۱٬۰۳۸ ۱۰۰٪ سنی جعفری/حنبلی ۱۵ ازبکستان ۲۷٬۳۷۲٬۰۰۰ ۸۸٪ سنی الحنفی اسلام و دیگراندیشه‌ها مسلمانان بر این باورند که خدا پیام خود را از راه وحی بر محمد و پیامبران دیگر از جمله آدم، نوح، ابراهیم، موسی و عیسی فروفرستاد. در واقع مسلمانان معتقدند که دین خدا در اصل از آدم تا محمد یکی است و این اصول در قرآن گردآمده‌اند. متون اسلامی این‌گونه بیان می‌کنند که یهودیت و مسیحیت مشتقاتی از تعالیم ابراهیم بوده و در نتیجه از دین‌های ابراهیمی به شمار می‌آیند. قرآن، از یهودیان و مسیحیان (و دیگر معتقدان به ادیان با منشأ الهی) به صورت «اهل کتاب» یاد می‌کند. منتقدان علی دشتی در کتاب «۲۳ سال» عقاید پایه مسلمانان را مورد انتقاد قرار داد که قرآن از سوی خدا فرستاده نشده و تنها سخنان محمد و از روی وجدان پاک‌سیرت وی بوده‌است و قرآن چیز تازه‌ای برای ارائه نداشته بلکه تنها افکار و عقاید دیگر را به شکل خودش گردآوری کرده و با سخنان شخصی محمد خود را مدعی کلام‌خدابودن دانسته‌است. البته پاسخ‌های فراوانی برای این کتاب توسط محققان و دانشمندان علوم اسلامی داده شده‌است. شجاع‌الدین شفا هم در کتاب‌های «تولدی دیگر» و «پس از ۱۴۰۰ سال» ادیان سامی و دین اسلام را نقد کرده‌است.احمد کسروی هم از منتقدان اسلام است. نگارخانه نگاهی به اسلام کعبه در مکه غار حرا در حجاز سوره حمد از قرآن دیوارنوشته الله در ادیرنه مسجد ابراهیمی (الخلیل) مسجد امام (اصفهان) مسجد بنی سلمه قرآن مکتوب عهد عثمان قبرستان بقیع (شهر مدینه) بارگاه علی بن ابی‌طالب مزار شریف-افغانستان میثاق امنیتی منسوب به محمد مشهد (خراسان رضوی) شهر قونیه-ترکیه مسجد تاج محل-آگرا-هند مسجد آبی استانبول مسجد و آرامگاه ابو حنیفه مدفن امام ابی حنیفه در اعظمیه بغداد. حجاب بانویی ایرانی جستارهای وابسته هنر اسلامی آمار اسلام تاریخ اسلام اسلام‌هراسی اسلام در منابع اسلامی پانویس فهرست گزیدهٔ منابع قرآن کریم، ترجمه، توضیحات و واژه نامه از بهاءالدین خرمشاهی. ناشرجامی و نیلوفر. مرتضی مطهری، آشنایی با علوم اسلامی، انتشارات صدرا ۱۳۷۳ هادی، سبزواری معروف به ملا هادی سبزواری. شرح الاسماء الحسنی (شرح دعای جوشن کبیر). امام مالک. الموطّا تاریخ خلفا، سیوطی، به نقل از العسکری شرح نهج البلاغه، ابن ابی الحدید. منهاج البراعه فی شرح نهج البلاغه، خویی. جامعة علوم القرآن پایگاه تخصصی علوم قرآنی ایلیا پتروشفسکی: اسلام در ایران - ترجمه کریم کشاورز، تهران، ۱۳۵۳، انتشارات پیام. طباطبایی، سید محمدحسین (معروف به علامه طباطبایی). به کوشش: خسرو شاهی، سید هادی. تعالیم اسلام. قم: مؤسسه بوستان کتاب ۱۳۸۷. نشریه مکتب اسلام- شماره ۱۹۶ قرآن کریم، ترجمه - ترجمان وحی - محمد صادقی تهرانی، انتشارات شکرانه، چاپ اول 1385 Peters, Francis E.. The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition. Princeton University Press، 2003، ISBN 0-691-12373-X، Ahmed, Nazeer. Islam in Global History: From the Death of Prophet Muhammad to the First World War. American Institute of Islamic History and Cul, ۲۰۰۱, ISBN 0-7388-5963 Wilferd Madelung. The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press، ۱۹۹۷،. Washington Irving. Mahomet and His Successors. READ BOOKS, 2007, ISBN 978-1-4086-2646-7, ‏Donzel (1994 در ویکی‌انبار پرونده‌هایی دربارهٔ اسلام موجود است.

For other uses, see Islam (disambiguation). The Kaaba, in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, is the center of Islam. Muslims from all over the world gather there to pray in unity. This article is part of a series on: Islam Beliefs Oneness of God Prophets Revealed books Angels Predestination Day of Resurrection Practices Profession of faith Prayer Fasting Alms Pilgrimage Texts and laws Quran Sunnah Hadith Fiqh Sharia Kalam History and leaders Timeline Muhammad Ahl al-Bayt Sahaba Rashidun Imamate Caliphate Spread of Islam Denominations Sunni Shia Sufism Ibadi Ahmadiyya Quranism NOI (5 percenter) Liberal Culture and society Academics Animals Art Calendar Children Dawah Demographics Festivals Mosques Philosophy Politics Science Women Related topics Other religions Islamism Criticism Islamophobia Glossary Islam portal Islam (English pron.: /ˈɪslɑːm/; Arabic: الإسلام‎, al-ʾIslām  IPA: [ælʔɪsˈlæːm] ( listen)) is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion articulated by the Qur'an, a book considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God (Arabic: الله‎ Allāh) and by the teachings and normative example (called the Sunnah and composed of Hadith) of Muhammad, considered by them to be the last prophet of God. An adherent of Islam is called a Muslim. Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable and the purpose of existence is to love and serve God. Muslims also believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed at many times and places before, including through Abraham, Moses and Jesus, whom they consider prophets. They maintain that the previous messages and revelations have been partially misinterpreted or altered over time, but consider the Arabic Qur'an to be both the unaltered and the final revelation of God. Religious concepts and practices include the five pillars of Islam, which are basic concepts and obligatory acts of worship, and following Islamic law, which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, providing guidance on multifarious topics from banking and welfare, to warfare and the environment. Most Muslims are of two denominations, Sunni (75–90%), or Shia (10–20%). About 13% of Muslims live in Indonesia, the largest Muslim-majority country, 25% in South Asia, 20% in the Middle East, and 15% in Sub-saharan Africa. Sizable minorities are also found in China, Russia, and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world (see Islam by country). With about 1.57 billion followers or 23% of earth's population, Islam is the second-largest religion and one of the fastest-growing religions in the world. Etymology and meaning Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means "voluntary submission to God". Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb of which Islām is the infinitive. Believers demonstrate submission to God by serving God, following his commands, and rejecting polytheism. The word sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the Qur'an. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as an internal conviction: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam." Other verses connect islām and dīn (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion." Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that includes imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence), where islām is defined theologically as Tawhid, historically by asserting that Muhammad is messenger of God, and doctrinally by mandating five basic and fundamental pillars of practice. Articles of faith Main articles: Aqidah and Iman God Main articles: Allah and God in Islam Islam's most fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called tawhīd (Arabic: توحيد‎). God is described in chapter 112 of the Qur'an as: "Say: He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."(112:1-4) Muslims and Jews repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension and Muslims are not expected to visualize God. God is described and referred to by certain names or attributes, the most common being Al-Rahmān, meaning "The Compassionate" and Al-Rahīm, meaning "The Merciful" (See Names of God in Islam). Muslims believe that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God’s sheer command, “‘Be’ and so it is,” and that the purpose of existence is to worship God. He is viewed as a personal god who responds whenever a person in need or distress calls him. There are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God who states, "I am nearer to him than (his) jugular vein." The reciprocal nature is mentioned in the hadith qudsi, "I am as My servant thinks (expects) I am." Allāh is the term with no plural or gender used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews to reference God, while ʾilāh (Arabic: إله‎) is the term used for a deity or a god in general. Other non-Arab Muslims might use different names as much as Allah, for instance "Tanrı" in Turkish, "Khodā" in Persian or Xudā in Urdu. Angels Main article: Islamic view of angels Part of a series on Qur'an Text Chapter (Sura) List of chapters Meccan Medinan Verse Juz Muqatta'at Content God Eschatology Prophets in the Quran Quran and miracles Quran and science Legends Female figures Parables in the Quran Quran reading Tajwid Tarteel Hafiz Reciter Variant readings Translation List of translations English translations History History of the Quran Samarkand Kufic Quran Sana'a manuscript Topkapi manuscript Qur’anic exegesis Persons related to verses mentioned by name Occasions of revelation Abrogation Biblical narratives Esoteric interpretation Qur'anic hermeneutics Related Inimitability Qur'an and tradition Qur'anism Shi’a Createdness Criticism Belief in angels is fundamental to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel (Arabic: ملك‎ malak) means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (malakh) and Greek (angelos). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess free will, worship and obey God in total obedience. Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. Muslims believe that angels are made of light. They are described as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases..." Revelations Main articles: Islamic holy books and Qur'an See also: History of the Qur'an The first sura in a Qur'anic manuscript by Hattat Aziz Efendi The Islamic holy books are the records which most Muslims believe were dictated by God to various prophets. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospels), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both. The Qur'an (literally, “Reading” or “Recitation”) is viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and literal word of God and is widely regarded as the finest piece of literature work in the Arabic language. Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the archangel Gabriel (Jibrīl) on many occasions between 610 CE until his death on June 8, 632 CE. While Muhammad was alive, all of these revelations were written down by his companions (sahabah), although the prime method of transmission was orally through memorization. The Qur'an is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 āyāt, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community. The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values". Muslim jurists consult the hadith, or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir. Rules governing proper pronunciation is called tajwid. Muslims usually view "the Qur'an" as the original scripture as revealed in Arabic and that any translations are necessarily deficient, which are regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an. Prophets Hadith Ḥadīth - (حديث) Sunni collections Kutub Al-Sittah - (The six books) Sahih Al-Bukhari ( صحيح البخاري ) Sahih Muslim ( صحيح مسلم ) Al-Sunan Al-Sughra ( السنن الصغرى ) Sunan Abi Dawood ( سنن أبي داود ) Sunan Al-Tirmidhi ( جامع الترمذي ) Sunan Ibn Maja ( سُنن ابن ماجه ) Others Muwatta Imam Malik Musnad Ahmad Ibn Hanbal (780–855) Sunan Al-Darimi (868) Shama'il Muhammadiyah often referred to as Shamaail Tirmidhi (9th Century) Sahih Ibn Khuzaymah (923) Ṣaḥīḥ Ibn Ḥibbān (965) Al-Mustadrak Alaa Al-Ṣaḥīḥaīn(11th century) Al-Mawdū'āt Al-Kubrā (1128–1217) Rīaḍ As-Ṣāliḥīn (1233–1278) Mishkat Al-Masabih (1340) Talkhis Al-Mustadrak (1274–1348) Majma Al-Zawa'id (1335–1405) Bulugh Al-Maram (1372–1449) Kanz al-Ummal (16th century) Zujajat al-Masabih (19th century) Minhaj us Sawi (20th century) Muntakhab Ahadith (20th century) Shi'a collections Al-Kutub Al-Arb'ah - (The four books) Kitab Al-Kafi ( الكتاب الكافي ) Man La Yahduruhu Al-Faqih ( من لا يحضره الفقيه ) Tahdhib Al-Ahkam ( تهذیب الاحکام ) Al-Istibsar ( الاستبصار ) Others The Book of Sulaym Ibn Qays (7th Century) Al-Sahifa Al-Sajjadiyya (678–713) Sharh Usul al-Kafi (11th century) Nahj Al-Balagha (10th Century) Wasā'il Al-Shīʿa (17th century) Bihar Al-Anwar (17th century) Haqq al-Yaqeen (17th century) Ain Al-Hayat (17th century) Qalam-e-Mowla (?) Daim al-Islam (10th century) Ibadi collections Jami Sahih Tartib Al-Musnad Mu'tazila collections Comments on the Peak of Eloquence (?–1258) Related Articles History Hadith studies Biographical evaluation Jihad in Hadith Criticism of Hadith Terminology Categories Category Portal Main article: Prophets in Islam Muslims identify the prophets of Islam (Arabic: أنۢبياء‎ anbiyāʾ ) as those humans chosen by God to be his messengers. According to the Qurʼan, the descendants of Abraham were chosen by God to bring the "will of God" to the peoples of the nations. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers preached the message of Islam—submission to the will of God. The Qurʼan mentions the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others. Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad (Seal of the Prophets) to convey the divine message to the whole world (to sum up and to finalize the word of God). In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as the words of God repeated by Muhammad differing from the Quran in that they are expressed in Prophet Muhammad's words, whereas the Qur'an is understood as the direct words of God. The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an. Resurrection and judgment Main article: Qiyama Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم القيامة‎) is also crucial for Muslims. They believe the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of scholars. The Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death. On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all mankind will be judged on their good and bad deeds. The Qurʼan in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as, "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it (99:7) and whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it (99:8)." The Qurʼan lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief in God (Arabic: كفر‎ kufr), and dishonesty; however, the Qurʼan makes it clear God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he so wills. Good deeds, such as charity, prayer and compassion towards animals, will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and bliss, with Qurʼanic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God. Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Qur'an as Yawm ad-Dīn (Arabic: يوم الدين‎), "Day of Religion"; as-sāʿah (Arabic: الساعة‎), "the Last Hour"; and al-Qāriʿah (Arabic: القارعة‎), "The Clatterer". Predestination Main article: Predestination in Islam In accordance with the Islamic belief in predestination, or divine preordainment (al-qadā wa'l-qadar), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'..." For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. According to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in al-Lawh al-Mahfūz, the "Preserved Tablet". Five pillars Main article: Five Pillars of Islam The Pillars of Islam (arkan al-Islam; also arkan ad-din, "pillars of religion") are five basic acts in Islam, considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the shahadah (creed), (2) daily prayers (salat), (3) almsgiving (zakah), (4) fasting during Ramadan and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime. The Shia and Sunni sects both agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts. Testimony Main article: Shahadah The Shahadah, which is the basic creed of Islam that must be recited under oath with the specific statement: "'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh", or "I testify there are no deities other than God alone and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed. Prayer Main article: Salah See also: Mosque Muslim men prostrating during prayer in a mosque. Ritual prayers, called Ṣalāh or Ṣalāt (Arabic: صلاة), must be performed five times a day. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language, and consist of verses from the Qur'an. A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, masjid. The word mosque in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (masjid jāmi`). Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets. Alms-giving Main articles: Zakat and Sadaqah "Zakāt" (Arabic: زكاة‎ zakāh "alms") is giving a fixed portion of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy and for those employed to collect Zakat; also, for bringing hearts together, freeing captives, for those in debt (or bonded labour) and for the (stranded) traveller. It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". Conservative estimates of annual zakat is estimated to be 15 times global humanitarian aid contributions. The amount of zakat to be paid on capital assets (e.g. money) is 2.5% (1/40), for people who are not poor. The Qur'an and the hadith also urge a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving called ṣadaqah. The Kaaba during Hajj. Fasting Main article: Sawm Further information: Sawm of Ramadan Fasting, (Arabic: صوم‎ ṣawm), from food and drink (among other things) must be performed from dawn to dusk during the month of Ramadhan. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. Sawm is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly. Pilgrimage Main article: Hajj The pilgrimage, called the ḥajj (Arabic: حج‎, has to be done during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. Rituals of the Hajj include: walking seven times around the Kaaba; walking seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, while she was looking for water in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement; spending a day in the desert at Mina and then a day in the desert in Arafat praying and worshiping God and following the foot steps of Abraham; symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina recounting Abraham's actions. Law and jurisprudence Main articles: Sharia and Fiqh Part of a series on Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh) Economic History Zakat Jizya Nisab Khums Sadaqah Waqf Bayt al-mal Banking Riba Murabaha Takaful Sukuk Inheritance Political Political aspects of Islam Islamic leadership Caliphate Imamah Wilayat al-faqih Bay'ah Dhimmi Marital Contract Mahr Marriage in Islam Misyar Halala Urfi Nikah mut‘ah Polygyny Divorce Iddah Ma malakat aymanukum Adoption Sexual Masturbation Hygiene Extramarital sex Awrah Criminal Hudud Blasphemy Maisir (gambling) Zina (extramarital sex) Hirabah (unlawful warfare) Fasad (mischief) Rajm (stoning) Tazir (discretionary) Qisas (retribution) Diyya (compensation) Etiquette Adab Sex segregation Mahram Honorifics Toilet Theological Baligh Salat Raka'ah Qibla Turbah Sunnah salat Tahajjud Tarawih Nafl salat Sawm Hajj Ihram Clothing Mut'ah Tawaf Umrah with Hajj Hygiene Sexual Toilet Taharah Ihram Wudu Masah Ghusl Tayammum Miswak Najis Dietary Dhabihah Alcohol Pork Compared with kashrut Military Defensive jihad Offensive jihad Hudna Istijarah (asylum) Ma malakat aymanukum Prisoners of war Islamic studies The Shariʻah (literally "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship, which most Muslim groups adhere to. Shariʻah "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his or her religious belief". The Quran set the rights, the responsibilities and the rules for people and for societies to adhere to. Muhammad provided an example, which is recorded in the hadith books, showing people how he practically implemented these rules in a society. After the passing of Muhammad, Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, whose views some Shiʻis follow, and Imams Abu Hanifa and Malik ibn Anas, whose views some Sunnis follow, worked together in Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina along with over 70 other leading jurists and scholars. They did not distinguish between each other or classify them selves as Sunni or Shiʻah. They felt that they were following the religion of Abraham. They decided on new legal matters where there is no such ruling in the Quran or the Hadith regarding a similar case. In the books actually written by these original jurists and scholars, there are very few theological and judicial differences between them. Fiqh, or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. Much of it has evolved to prevent innovation or alteration in the original religion, known as bid'ah. These scholars were taught by Muhammad's companions, many of whom settled in Madina. Much of the knowledge we have about Muhammad is narrated through Aisha, the wife of Muhammad. Aisha raised and taught her nephew Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr the grandson of Abu Bakr and the grandfather of Ja'far al-Sadiq. Aishas also taught her nephew Urwah ibn Zubayr. He then taught his son Hisham ibn Urwah, who was the main teacher of Malik ibn Anas whose views many Sunni follow. Many of the differences are regarding Sharia laws devised through Ijtihad where there is no such ruling in the Quran or the Hadiths of Islamic prophet Muhammad regarding a similar case. As these jurists went to new areas, they were pragmatic and in some cases continued to use the same ruling as was given in that area during pre-Islamic times. If the population felt comfortable with it, it was just and they used Ijtihad to deduce that it did not conflict with the Quran or the Hadith. This made it easier for the different communities to integrate into the Islamic State and that assisted in the quick expansion of the Islamic State. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as usul al-fiqh ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). To reduce the divergence, in the 9th century, the jurist ash-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ar-Risālah. According to ash-Shafi'i, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Hadith (the practice of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). Al-Shafi'i also codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith. Muhammad al-Bukhari then travelled around and collected over 300,000 hadith, but only included 2,602 distinct hadith in his book Sahih al-Bukhari, that passed these tests and he codified as authentic and correct. Sahih al-Bukhari is therefore considered by many to be the most authentic book after the Quran. The Arabic word sahih translates as authentic or correct. They all gave priority to the Qur'an and the Hadith and felt that Islam was completed during the time of Muhammad and they wanted people to refer to the Quran. Ahmad ibn Hanbal rejected the writing down and codifying of the religious rulings he gave. They knew that they might have fallen into error in some of their judgements and stated this clearly. They never introduced their rulings by saying, "This is the judgement of God and His prophet." There is also very little text actually written down by Jafar al-Sadiq himself. Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and foreign relations, to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines hudud as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. The differences between the denominations in Islam are primarily political and amplified after the Safavid invasion of Persia in the 1500s and the subsequent Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam due to the politics between the Safavids and the Ottoman Empire. Before that point Jafar al-Sadiq disapproved of people who disapproved of his great grand father Abu Bakr the first caliph. Jurists Main articles: Ulama, Sheikh, and Imam There are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned positions of Islam, but "jurist" generally refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in several fields of Islamic studies. In a broader sense, the term ulema is used to describe the body of Muslim clergy who have completed several years of training and study of Islamic sciences, such as a mufti, qadi, faqih, or muhaddith. Some Muslims include under this term the village mullahs, imams, and maulvis—who have attained only the lowest rungs on the ladder of Islamic scholarship; other Muslims would say that clerics must meet higher standards to be considered ulama (singular Aalim). Some Muslims practise ijtihad whereby they do not accept the authority of clergy. Education is considered very important to Muslims, so that they could distinguish right from wrong, but when it comes to entry into heaven, the most noble in the sight of Allah are the most righteous and they may be honest, compassionate and helpful to other but not necessary very educated. Etiquette and diet Main articles: Adab (behavior) and Islamic dietary laws Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu `alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. Circumcision of male offspring is also practiced in Islam. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food. Family life See also: Women in Islam Women in Islam The basic unit of Islamic society is the family, and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of inheritance is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. With some exceptions, the woman's share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession. Marriage in Islam is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract. Marrying more than one woman was practiced in Arab culture before Islam arrived, therefore it is addressed in the Quran (verse 4:3) limiting the number of wives to four and only if a man could treat them with fairness and equity. Some scholars have considered this permissibility a way of seeing men bear responsibility for all their mates and ensure that the physical paternity of a child is always known. Other scholars think that verse 4:3 refers to a situation after a battle (battle of Uhud) caused large loss of men. Pre-modern Muslim scholars took this granted, however, beginning in the twentieth century, it became the subject of debate among feminists. Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous as the rule is a conditional permission not a recommendation. Economy Main article: Islamic economic jurisprudence To reduce the gap between the rich and the poor, Islamic economic jurisprudence encourages trade, discourages the hoarding of wealth and out laws interest bearing loans usury (the term is riba in Arabic). Therefore wealth is taxed through Zakat, but trade is not taxed. Usury allows the rich to get richer without sharing in the risk. Profit sharing and venture capital where the lender is also exposed to risk is acceptable. Hoarding of food for speculation is also discouraged. Grabbing other peoples land is also prohibited. The prohibition of usury has resulted in the development of Islamic banking. During the time of Muhammad, any money that went to the state, was immediately used to help the poor. Then in 634, Umar formally established the welfare state Bayt al-mal. The Bayt al-mal or the welfare state was for the Muslim and Non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the Umayyad period and well into the Abbasid era. Umar also introduced Child Benefit and Pensions for the children and the elderly. Government Main articles: Political aspects of Islam, Islamic state, Islam and secularism, and Caliphate Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the scholars function as both jurists and theologians. Currently no government conforms to Islamic economic jurisprudence, they all deal in usury and in Government bonds. Military Main articles: Jihad, Islamic military jurisprudence, and List of expeditions of Muhammad Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God). Jihad, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation". Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of one's own self (such as sinful desires), different categories of jihad are defined. Jihad, when used without any qualifier, is understood in its military aspect. Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection. Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and Sufis, distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare. In Islam there is also no compulsion in religion, as stated in surah Al-Baqara 256 in the Quran and there are clear limits imposed, for example, in war Muhammed prohibited the killing of women, children and civilians. Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants. The ultimate purpose of military jihad is debated, both within the Islamic community and without. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims. Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare. Only for those vested with authority, does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization. For most Twelver Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's occultation in 868 AD. History Main articles: Muslim history and Spread of Islam Muhammad (610–632) Main articles: Muhammad and Muhammad in Islam See also: Early social changes under Islam A panoramic view of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Saudi Arabia, the second most sacred Mosque in Islam Muhammad Muḥammad - (محمد) Life Life in Mecca Migration to Medina Life in Medina Conquest of Mecca The Farewell Pilgrimage Career Hadith Early Reforms Under Islam Diplomacy Military Persecution by Meccans Migration to Abyssinia Attributed miracles Quran Attributed miracles Isra and Mi'raj Splitting of the Moon Views Jews Christians Slavery Succession Farewell sermon Hadith (Pen and Paper) Saqifah Ahl al-Bayt Companions History Praise Durood Na'at Mawlid Perspectives Islamic Jewish Bible Medieval Christian Historicity Criticism Related Mosque of the prophet Relics Category Islam Portal In Muslim tradition, Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) is viewed as the last in a series of prophets. During the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 CE, according to the earliest surviving biographies, Muhammad reported revelations that he believed to be from God conveyed to him through the archangel Gabriel (Jibril). The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his companions. During this time, Muhammad in Mecca preached to the people, imploring them to abandon polytheism and to worship one God. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. This resulted in the Migration to Abyssinia of some Muslims (to the Aksumite Empire). Many early converts to Islam, were the poor and former slaves like Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi. The Meccan elite felt that Muhammad was destabilising their social order by preaching about one God, racial equality and in the process giving ideas to the poor and their slaves. After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans and the Meccan boycott of the Hashemites, Muhammads relatives, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra ("emigration") to the city of Medina (formerly known as Yathrib) in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority. A state was established in accordance with Islamic economic jurisprudence. The Constitution of Medina was formulated, instituting a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, Christian and pagan communities of Medina, bringing them within the fold of one community — the Ummah. The Constitution established: the security of the community, religious freedoms, the role of Medina as a sacred place (barring all violence and weapons), the security of women, stable tribal relations within Medina, a tax system for supporting the community in time of conflict, parameters for exogenous political alliances, a system for granting protection of individuals, and a judicial system for resolving disputes where non-Muslims could also use their own laws. All the tribes signed the agreement to defend Madina from all external threats and to live in harmony amongst themselves. Within a few years, two battles were fought against the Meccan forces: first, the Battle of Badr in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and then a year later, when the Meccans returned to Medina, the Battle of Uhud, which ended inconclusively. The Arab tribes in the rest of Arabia then formed a confederation and during the Battle of the Trench besieged Medina intent on finishing off Islam. In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims and was broken by Mecca two years later. After the signing of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah many more people converted to Islam. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control. By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless Conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 62) he united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity. Caliphate and civil war (632–750) Further information: Succession to Muhammad, Muslim conquests, and Battle of Karbala The Great Mosque of Kairouan, established in 670 in Kairouan, Tunisia, represents one of the best architectural examples of Islamic civilization. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Abu Bakr, a companion and close friend of Muhammad, was made the first caliph. His immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy". The Quran was compiled into a one book at this time. His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar ibn al-Khattab as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and Hasan ibn Ali. The first caliphs are known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into the Persian and Byzantine territories. When Umar was assassinated by Persians in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. The standard copies of the Quran were also distributed throughout the Islamic State. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following this, Mu'awiyah seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty. These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi'a. After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghrib, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh. Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily to finance the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests. Since the Constitution of Medina, Jews and Christians continued to use their own laws in the Islamic State and had their own judges. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented non-Arab converts (mawali), poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of the general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750. Abbasid era (750–1258) The Muslim Caliphate, 750 CE. During this time, the Delhi Sultanate took over of the Indian subcontinent. Religious missions converted Volga Bulgaria to Islam. Many Muslims also went to China to trade, virtually dominating the import and export industry of the Song Dynasty. The major hadith collections were compiled during the early Abbasid era. The Ja'fari jurisprudence was formed from the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq while the four Sunni Madh'habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad bin Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i respectively. Al-Shafi'i also codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith. Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir completed the most commonly cited commentaries on the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari in the 9th century and the Tafsir ibn Kathir in the 14th century, respectively. Philosophers Al-Farabi and Avicenna sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like Al-Ghazali argued against them and ultimately prevailed. Caliphs such as Mamun al Rashid and Al-Mu'tasim made the mutazilite philosophy an official creed and imposed it upon Muslims to follow. Mu'tazila was a Greek influenced school of speculative theology called kalam, which refers to dialectic. Many orthodox Muslims rejected mutazilite doctrines and condemned their idea of the creation of the Quran. In inquisitions, Imam Hanbal refused to conform and was tortured and sent to an unlit Baghdad prison cell for nearly thirty months. The other branch of kalam was the Ash'ari school founded by Al-Ash'ari. Some Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Sufism. Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely because of efforts to legitimize and reorganize the movement by Al-Ghazali, who developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students. This era is sometimes called the "Islamic Golden Age". Public hospitals established during this time (called Bimaristan hospitals), are considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word, and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors of medicine. The Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university. The doctorate is argued to date back to the licenses to teach in Muslim law schools. Standards of experimental and quantification techniques, as well as the tradition of citation, were introduced. An important pioneer in this, Ibn Al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world’s first true scientist". The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today. The data used by Copernicus for his heliocentric conclusions was gathered and Al-Jahiz proposed a theory of natural selection. Rumi wrote some of the finest Persian poetry and is still one of the best selling poets in America. Legal institutions introduced include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf). The first Muslims states independent of a unified Muslim state emerged from the Berber Revolt (739/740-743). In 930, the Ismaili group known as the Qarmatians unsuccessfully rebelled against the Abbassids, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, which was eventually retrieved. The Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbassid dynasty in 1258. Fall of Abbasids to end of caliphate (1258–1924) The Battle of Nicopolis in 1396 became one of the earliest victories of the Ottoman Empire. Islam spread with Muslim trade networks that extended into Sub-Saharan Africa, Central Asia and the Malay archipelago. Under the Ottoman Empire, many in the Balkans became Muslim. The Muslims in China who were descended from earlier immigration began to assimilate by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study. The Muslim world was generally in political decline, especially relative to the non-Islamic European powers. This decline was evident culturally; while Taqi al-Din founded an observatory in Istanbul and the Jai Singh Observatory was built in the 18th century, there was not a single Muslim country with a major observatory by the twentieth century. The Reconquista, launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia, succeeded in 1492 and Muslim Italian states were lost to the Normans. By the 19th century the British Empire had formally ended the last Mughal dynasty in India. The Ottoman era ended after World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924. The majority Shia group at that time, the Zaydis, used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis. The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran. The ensuing mandatory conversion of Iran to Twelver Shia Islam for the largely Sunni population also ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shiism over the Zaidi sect, the largest group amongst the Shia before the Safavid Dynasty, and the Ismaili sect. An important revival movement during this period include an 18th-century Salafi movement led by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab in today's Saudi Arabia. Referred to as Wahhabi, their self designation is Muwahiddun (unitarians). Building upon earlier efforts such as those by the logician Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim, the movement seeks to uphold monotheism and purify Islam of later innovations. Their zeal against idolatrous shrines led to the destruction of sacred tombs in Mecca and Medina, including those of the Prophet and his companions. In the 19th century, the Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated. Modern times (1924–present) Further information: Iranian revolution and Islamic revival Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants, from mostly India and Indonesia, to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas. The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914. Muslim immigrants, many as guest workers, began arriving, largely from former colonies, into several Western European nations since the 1960s. New Muslim intellectuals are beginning to arise, and are increasingly separating perennial Islamic beliefs from archaic cultural traditions. Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters". Women's issues receive a significant weight in the modern discourse on Islam. Secular powers such as Chinese Red Guards closed many mosques and destroyed Qurans and Communist Albania became the first country to ban the practice of every religion. In Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments and headscarves were, as well as in Tunisia, banned in official buildings. About half a million Muslims were killed in Cambodia by communists whom, it is argued, viewed them as their primary enemy and wished to exterminate them since they stood out and worshipped their own god. Islamist groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood advocate Islam as a comprehensive political solution, often in spite of being banned. Jamal-al-Din al-Afghani, along with his acolyte Muhammad Abduh, have been credited as forerunners of the Islamic revival. In Iran, revolution replaced a secular regime with an Islamic state. In Turkey, the Islamist AK Party has democratically been in power for about a decade, while Islamist parties are doing well in elections following the Arab Spring. The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. Piety appears to be deepening worldwide. In many places, the prevalence of the Islamic veil is growing increasingly common and the percentage of Muslims favoring Sharia laws has increased. With religious guidance increasingly available electronically, Muslims are able to access views that are strict enough for them rather than rely on state clerics who are often seen as stooges. Some organizations began using the media to promote Islam such as the 24-hour TV channel, Peace TV. Perhaps as a result of these efforts, most experts agree that Islam is growing faster than any other faith in East and West Africa. Denominations Main article: Islamic schools and branches The distribution of Sunni, Shia, and Ibadi branches of Islam. An overview of the major schools and branches of Islam. Sunni Main article: Sunni Islam The largest denomination in Islam is Sunni Islam, which makes up 75%–90% of all Muslims. Sunni Muslims also go by the name Ahl as-Sunnah which means "people of the tradition [of Muhammad]". These hadiths ("reports"), recounting Muhammads words, actions, and personal characteristics, are preserved in traditions known as Al-Kutub Al-Sittah (six major books). Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him and those leaders were elected. Sunnis believe that anyone who is righteous and just could be a caliph but they have to act according to the Qur'an and the Hadith, the example of Muhammad and give the people their rights. The Sunnis follow the Quran, then the Hadith. Then for legal matters not found in the Quran or the Hadith, they follow four madh'habs (schools of thought): Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi'i, established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad bin Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i respectively. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim may choose any one that he or she finds agreeable. The Salafi (also known as Ahl al-Hadith (Arabic: أهل الحديث; The people of hadith), or the pejorative term Wahhabi by its adversaries) is an ultra-orthodox Islamic movement which takes the first generation of Muslims as exemplary models. Shia Main article: Shia Islam The Shi'a constitute 10–20% of Islam and are its second-largest branch. Shia Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the Twelvers, followed by Zaidis and Ismailis. After the death of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq (the great grand son of Abu Bakr and Ali ibn Abi Talib) considered the sixth Imam by the Shia's, the Ismailis started to follow his son Isma'il ibn Jafar and the Twelver Shia's (Ithna Asheri) started to follow his other son Musa al-Kazim as their seventh Imam. The Zaydis follow Zayd ibn Ali, the uncle of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, as their fifth Imam. While Sunnis believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor and a caliph should be chosen by the whole community, the Twelver Shias and the Ismaili Shias believe that during Muhammad's final pilgrimage to Mecca, he appointed his son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib, as his successor in the Hadith of the pond of Khumm. As a result, they believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the first Imam (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr, Uthman ibn al-Affan and Umar ibn al-Khattab. Other smaller groups include the Bohra and Druze, as well as the Alawites and Alevi. Some Shia branches label other Shia branches that do not agree with their doctrine as Ghulat. Sufism Main article: Sufism Sufi whirling dervishes in Istanbul, Turkey Sufism is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use. However, Sufism has been criticized by the Salafi sect for what they see as an unjustified religious innovation. Hasan al-Basri lived during the time of Muhammad and was inspired by the ideas of piety and condemnation of worldliness preached by Muhammad and these ideas were later further developed by Al-Ghazali in his books on Sufism. Other denominations Ahmadiyya is an Islamic movement founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad that began in India in the late 19th century and is practiced by millions of people around the world. Ahmadiyyas are divided into two subgroups, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community and the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement. The Ibadi is a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam and is a branch of kharijite. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. The Quranists are Muslims who generally reject the Hadith. Yazdânism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century. Black Muslim movements such as the Nation of Islam (NOI) and Five-Percent Nation are primarily African-American. Demographics Main articles: Muslim world and Ummah See also: List of countries by Muslim population World Muslim population by percentage (Pew Research Center, 2009). A comprehensive 2009 demographic study of 232 countries and territories reported that 23% of the global population, or 1.57 billion people, are Muslims. Of those, it's estimated over 75–90% are Sunni and 10–20% are Shi'a, with a small minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 50 countries are Muslim-majority, and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide. Between 1900 and 1970 the global Muslim community grew from 200 million to 551 million; between 1970 and 2009 Muslim population increased more than three times to 1.57 billion. The majority of Muslims live in Asia and Africa. Approximately 62% of the world's Muslims live in Asia, with over 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh. In the Middle East, non-Arab countries such as Turkey and Iran are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria have the most populous Muslim communities. Most estimates indicate that the People's Republic of China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population). However, data provided by the San Diego State University's International Population Center to U.S. News & World Report suggests that China has 65.3 million Muslims. Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries, and is slowly catching up to that status in the Americas, with between 2,454,000, according to Pew Forum, and approximately 7 million Muslims, according to the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), in the United States. Culture The interior of the Great Mosque of Córdoba, one of the finest examples of Ummayad architecture in Spain. Main article: Islamic culture The term "Islamic culture" could be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals and dress code. It is also controversially used to mean the culture of traditionally Muslim people. Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims. Architecture Main article: Islamic architecture Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is architecture, particularly that of the mosque (four-iwan and hypostyle). Through the edifices, the effect of varying cultures within Islamic civilization can be illustrated. The North African and Spanish Islamic architecture, for example, has Roman-Byzantine elements, as seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan which contains marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings, in the Alhambra palace at Granada, or in the Great Mosque of Cordoba. Art Main article: Islamic art Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by Muslim populations. It includes fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others. Making images of human beings and animals is frowned on in many Islamic cultures and connected with laws against idolatry common to all Abrahamic religions, as 'Abdullaah ibn Mas'ood reported that Muhammad said, "Those who will be most severely punished by Allah on the Day of Resurrection will be the image-makers" (reported by al-Bukhaari, see al-Fath, 10/382). However this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods, and there are examples of paintings of both animals and humans in Mughal, Persian and Turkish art. The existence of this aversion to creating images of animate beings has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.[citation needed] Calendar Main article: Islamic calendar The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (Anno Hegirae) in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by Caliph Umar. It is a lunar calendar with days lasting from sunset to sunset. Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر‎) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca. Criticism of Islam Main article: Criticism of Islam Criticism of Islam has existed since Islam's formative stages. Early written criticism came from Christians, prior to the ninth century, many of whom viewed Islam as a radical Christian heresy. Later there appeared criticism from the Muslim world itself, and also from Jewish writers and from ecclesiastical Christians. Objects of criticism include the morality of the life of Muhammad, the last prophet of Islam, both in his public and personal life. Issues relating to the authenticity and morality of the Qur'an, the Islamic holy book, are also discussed by critics. Other criticisms focus on the question of human rights in modern Islamic nations, and the treatment of women in Islamic law and practice. In wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized. See also Main article: Outline of Islam Amman Message Christianity and Islam Dhikr Divisions of the world in Islam Glossary of Islam History of Islam Islam and animals Islam and children Islam and modernity Islam and other religions Islam and secularism Islam by country Islamic economics Islamic ethics Islamic literature Islamic mythology Islamic studies Islamic Missionary Activity List of Muslim empires and dynasties List of notable converts to Islam Lists of Muslims Major religious groups Muslim world Prisoner rights in Islam Quran and miracles Religious conversion#Islam Scientific foreknowledge in sacred texts Spread of Islam Timeline of Muslim history References Notes Citations Books and journals Accad, Martin (2003). "The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I)". Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 14 (1).  Ahmed, Akbar (1999). Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World (2.00 ed.). I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-257-9.  Bennett, Clinton (2010). Interpreting the Qur'an: a guide for the uninitiated. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-8264-9944-8.  Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2003). Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia. University of South Carolina press. ISBN 1-57003-471-0.  Cohen-Mor, Dalya (2001). A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513398-6.  Curtis, Patricia A. (2005). A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations. Blackwell Publishing Professional. ISBN 978-0-8138-1946-4.  Esposito, John (2010). Islam: The Straight Path (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539600-3.  Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511234-4.  Esposito, John; Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad (2000a). Muslims on the Americanization Path?. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513526-1.  Esposito, John (2000b). Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510799-9.  Esposito, John (2002a). Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-516886-0.  Esposito, John (2002b). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515713-3.  Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512558-4.  Esposito, John (2004). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd Rev Upd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518266-8.  Farah, Caesar (1994). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (5th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0-8120-1853-0.  Farah, Caesar (2003). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (7th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0-7641-2226-2.  Firestone, Reuven (1999). Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512580-0.  Ghamidi, Javed (2001). Mizan. Dar al-Ishraq. OCLC 52901690.  Goldschmidt, Jr., Arthur; Lawrence Davidson (2005). A Concise History of the Middle East (8th ed.). Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-4275-7.  Griffith, Ruth Marie; Barbara Dianne Savage (2006). Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-8370-9.  Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (2002). Muslims in the West: from sojourners to citizens. Oxford University Press.  Hawting, G. R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24073-5.  Hedayetullah, Muhammad (2006). Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-55369-842-5.  Hofmann, Murad (2007). Islam and Qur'an. ISBN 978-1-59008-047-4.  Holt, P. M.; Bernard Lewis (1977a). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29136-4.  Holt, P. M.; Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis (1977b). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29137-2.  Hourani, Albert; Ruthven, Malise (2003). 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ISBN 978-0-06-051605-5.  Lewis, Bernard (2004). The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror. Random House, Inc., New York. ISBN 978-0-8129-6785-2.  Madelung, Wilferd (1996). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64696-0.  Malik, Jamal; John R Hinnells, Inc NetLibrary (2006). Sufism in the West. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-27408-7.  Menski, Werner F. (2006). Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85859-3.  Miller, Tracy, ed. (10 2009). Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population (PDF). Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2009-10-08.  Momen, Moojan (1987). An Introduction to Shi`i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi`ism. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5.  Nasr, Seyed Muhammad (1994). 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ISBN 0-19-511915-0.  Siljander, Mark D. and John David Mann. A Deadly Misunderstanding: a Congressman's Quest to Bridge the Muslim-Christian Divide. First ed. New York: Harper One, 2008. ISBN 978-0-978-0-06-143828-8 Smith, Jane I. (2006). The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515649-2.  Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn; Seyyed Hossein Nasr (translator) (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Suny press. ISBN 0-87395-272-3.  Teece, Geoff (2003). Religion in Focus: Islam. Franklin Watts Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7496-4796-4.  Trimingham, John Spencer (1998). The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512058-2.  Turner, Colin (2006). Islam: the Basics. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-34106-X.  Turner, Bryan S. (1998). Weber and Islam. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-17458-9.  Waines, David (2003). An Introduction to Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-53906-4.  Watt, W. Montgomery (1973). The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. University Press Edinburgh. ISBN 0-85224-245-X.  Watt, W. Montgomery (1974). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (New ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-881078-4.  Weiss, Bernard G. (2002). Studies in Islamic Legal Theory. Boston: Brill Academic publishers. ISBN 90-04-12066-1.  Encyclopedias William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian, ed. (2005). Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Berkshire Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-9743091-0-1.  Gabriel Oussani, ed. (1910). Catholic Encyclopedia.  Paul Lagasse, Lora Goldman, Archie Hobson, Susan R. Norton, ed. (2000). The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). Gale Group. ISBN 978-1-59339-236-9.  Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.  Erwin Fahlbusch, William Geoffrey Bromiley, ed. (2001). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Eerdmans Publishing Company, and Brill. ISBN 0-8028-2414-5.  John Bowden, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-522393-4.  Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.  Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll, ed. (2003). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0-02-865603-8.  Jane Dammen McAuliffe (ed.). Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Brill Academic Publishers.  Salamone Frank, ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-94180-8.  Glasse Cyril, ed. (2003). New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. ISSN 978-0759101906.  Further reading Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim. Minneapolis: Bethany House Publishers. N.B. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur'an, and this religion's affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to "dialogue" on the basis of what both faiths really teach. ISBN 0-89123-553-6 Akyol, Mustafa (2011). Islam Without Extremes (1st ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-07086-6.  Arberry, A. J. (1996). The Koran Interpreted: A Translation (1st ed.). Touchstone. ISBN 978-0-684-82507-6.  Hourani, Albert (1991). Islam in European Thought. First pbk. ed. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1992, cop. 1991. xi, 199 p. ISBN 0-521-42120-9; alternative ISBN on back cover, 0-521-42120-0 Khan, Muhammad Muhsin; Al-Hilali Khan, Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (1999). Noble Quran (1st ed.). Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-9960-740-79-9.  Khavari, Farid A. (1990). Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. ISBN 0-915677-55-5 Kramer (ed.), Martin (1999). The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. Syracuse University. ISBN 978-965-224-040-8.  Kuban, Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-03813-2.  Lewis, Bernard (1994). Islam and the West. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509061-1.  Lewis, Bernard (1996). Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510283-3.  Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144-071-0.  Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). History of Islam. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144-034-5.  Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices (New ed.). Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4.  Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-70281-2.  Tausch, Arno (2009). Muslim Calvinism (1st ed.). Rozenberg Publishers, Amsterdam. ISBN 978-90-5170-995-7.  Tausch, Arno (2009). What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the "World Values Survey". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University (1st ed.). Nova Science Publishers, New York. ISBN 978-1-60692-731-1.  Walker, Benjamin (1998). Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith. Peter Owen Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7206-1038-3.  A. Khanbaghi. The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran (IB Tauris, 2006). External links Academic resources Patheos Library – Islam University of Southern California Compendium of Muslim Texts Encyclopedia of Islam (Overview of World Religions) Ethical Democracy Journal views on Islam, other ethical systems and democracy Online resources Islam, article at Encyclopædia Britannica Islam, article at Friesian.com Asabiyya: Re-Interpreting Value Change in Globalized Societies, article at Repec/Ideas, University of Connecticut and IZA, Bonn, on Islam and global value change Islam, article at Citizendium Directories Islam (Bookshelf) at Project Gutenberg Islam from UCB Libraries GovPubs Islam and Islamic Studies Resources from Dr. Alan Godlas, Professor, University of Georgia