نیروی کار
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نیروی کار یک جامعه، عبارت است از تعداد افرادی که بر اساس قانون، در سن اشتغال قرار گرفته‌اند. این رقم مجموع بیکاران هر کشور را نیز در بر می‌گیرد. برابر آخرین گزارش منتشره توسط سازمان بهره‌وری آسیا (APO) در سال ۲۰۰۷ میلادی، ایران در شاخص سطح بهره‌وری نیروی کار در بین ۲۳ کشور آسیایی رتبه هفتم را کسب کرده‌است، این درحالی است که رتبه ایران در سال ۱۹۹۵ میلادی در بین ۲۳ کشور آسیایی رتبه ۶ بوده‌است. برابر این گزارش در سال ۲۰۰۷ میلادی برای هر کارگر با استفاده از برابری قدرت خرید سال ۲۰۰۵ و به قیمتهای ثابت این سال رقمی بالغ بر ۳۷هزار و ۳۰۰ دلار اعلام شد. بر این اساس ایران، در شاخص سطح بهره‌وری نیروی انسانی، پس از کشورهای، برونئی با۱۱۵هزارو ۲۳۴دلار، هنگ کنگ با ۷۹هزار و ۲۹۰دلار، سنگاپور با ۷۸هزار و ۴۶۱دلار، ژاپن با ۶۲ هزار و ۴۵۱ دلار، روسیه با ۶۰هزار و۹۹۰دلار و کره جنوبی با ۴۳هزارو۱۵۸دلار قرار گرفته‌است و ۱۶کشور آسیایی دیگر مانند مالزی، تایلند، چین، هند، اندونزی و ... در رتبه‌های پس از ایران قرار گرفته‌اند. نقش و اهمیت نیروی کار[ویرایش]امروزه، نقش و اهمیت نیروی انسانی در فرایند تولید و ارائه خدمات در جوامع بشری به عنوان مهم‌ترین عامل مشخص شده‌است با نگاهی به مراحل تمدن بشری مشخص می‌شود که نقش نیروی انسانی از نیروی کار ساده به سرمایه انسانی تکامل یافته‌است، چرا که پیشرفت تکنولوژی بدون تحولات نیروی انسانی فاقد کارایی است، در عصر حاضر دیگر تزریق منابع مالی به عنوان فاکتور اصلی توسعه به‌شمار نمی‌آید بلکه تحولات و بهره‌وری نیروی انسانی به رشد خود سبب ارتقای سازمان‌ها و به تبع آن توسعه نظام‌های اقتصادی در جهان می‌شوند، به‌طوری‌که سرمایه‌های انسانی میزان سرمایه‌های مادی را تعیین می‌کنند. به جرأت می‌توان ادعا کرد که هر ماشینی در نهایت یک ظرفیت تعریف شده دارد که بیش از آن نمی‌توان انتظار داشت اما ظرفیت‌های انسان تا بی‌نهایت است و همچنین تاکنون هیچ فرایند تولیدی اختراع نشده‌است که به کار انسانی نیازمند نباشد. ریشه و علل عقب افتادگی کشورهای توسعه نیافته که بطور اساسی تحت تأثیر پدیده بهره‌وری پایین است. بنابراین رشد بالای بهره‌وری خصوصاً بهره‌وری نیروی انسانی کار همه فعالیت‌های اقتصادی و اجتماعی را تحت تأثیر قرار می‌دهد. استفاده صحیح از نیروی انسانی به مثابه ارزشمندترین و بزرگترین ثروت هر جامعه به صورت مسئله‌ای حائز اهمیت مورد توجه دولت‌ها بوده‌است. به عبارت دیگر می‌توان گفت که انسان هم، هدف توسعه و هم عامل آن محسوب می‌شود و تحقیق اهداف توسعه تا حد قابل توجهی به نحوهٔ اداره و مدیریت این ثروت و منبع حیاتی بستگی یافته‌است. در این میان تجربه نشان داده است که کوچک‌سازی دولت‌ها و میدان دادن به بخش خصوصی و تعاونی و هم‌زمان سبب صعود روند بهره‌وری و سرمایه‌گذاری، مشارکت و منابع انسانی می‌شود بنابراین بهره‌وری منابع انسانی یکی از رکن‌های مهم هر مؤسسه یا سازمان می‌باشد. کشورهای با نیروی کار ارزان[ویرایش]یکی از عواملی که می‌تواند در تبدیل کشورهای مختلف به قدرت‌های اقتصادی مؤثر باشد، در دسترس بودن نیروی کار ارزان‌تر است، به عنوان یک نمونه کشور برزیل با در اختیار داشتن بخش‌های گسترده و توسعه یافته کشاورزی، معدن، تولید، خدمات و نیز نیروی کار، دارای تولید ناخالص داخلی (برابری قدرت خرید) بیش از سایر کشورهای آمریکای لاتین است و این امر برزیل را تبدیل به قدرت اقتصادی منطقه کرده‌است و با داشتن منابع طبیعی گسترده و نیروی کاری غنی قدرتمندترین اقتصاد آمریکای جنوبی است.[۱][۲] از جمله ارزان‌ترین نیروهای کار در جهان می‌توان نیروی کار در کشورهای ماداگاسکار، بنگلادش، پاکستان، غنا، ویتنام و هند را نام برد.[۳] جستارهای وابسته[ویرایش]
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 Employment trends in key variables indexed to show relative changes in the number of persons (starting point = 100). For example, from June 2009 (the official end of the Great Recession) to July 2018, the number of persons not in the labor force increased by 18% as millions of Baby Boomers retire, but the labor force increased 5%. The labor force (workforce in British English) is the actual number of people available for work and is the sum of the employed and the unemployed. The U.S. labor force was approximately 160 million persons in January 2018.[1] The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) defines the labor force thus: "Included are persons 16 years of age and older residing in the 50 States and the District of Columbia who are not inmates of institutions (for example, penal and mental facilities, homes for the aged), and who are not on active duty in the Armed Forces."[2] The U.S. labor force has risen each year since 1960, with the exception of the period following the Great Recession, when it remained below 2008 levels from 2009-2011.[1] The labor force participation rate, LFPR (or economic activity rate, EAR), is the ratio between the labor force and the overall size of their cohort (national population of the same age range). Much as in other countries, the labor force participation rate in the U.S. increased significantly in the West during the later half of the 20th century, largely because women entering the workplace in increasing numbers. In the U.S., the overall labor force participation rate has declined steadily since 2000, primarily because of the aging and retirement of the Baby Boom generation. Analyzing labor force participation trends in the prime working age (25-54) cohort helps separate the impact of an aging population from other demographic factors (e.g., gender, race, and education) and government policies. The Congressional Budget Office explained in 2018 that higher educational attainment is correlated with higher labor force participation for workers aged 25–54. Prime-aged men tend to be out of the labor force because of disability, while a key reason for women is caring for family members.[3] ContentsGender and the US labor forceWomenIn the United States, there were three significant stages of women’s increased participation in the labor force. During the late 19th century through the 1920s, very few women worked. Working women were often young single women who typically withdrew from labor force at marriage unless their family needed two incomes. These women worked primarily in the textile manufacturing industry or as domestic workers. This profession empowered women and allowed them to earn a living wage. At times, they were a financial help to their families. Between 1930 and 1950, female labor force participation increased primarily due to the increased demand for office workers, women participating in the high school movement, and electrification which reduced the time spent on household chores. In the 1950s to the 1970s, most women were secondary earners working mainly as secretaries, teachers, nurses, and librarians (pink-collar jobs). Claudia Goldin and others, specifically point out that by the mid-1970s there was a period of revolution of women in the labor force brought on by different factors. Women more accurately planned for their future in the work force, choosing more applicable majors in college that prepared them to enter and compete in the labor market. In the United States, the labor force participation rate rose from approximately 59% in 1948 to 66% in 2005,[4] with participation among women rising from 32% to 59%[5] and participation among men declining from 87% to 73%.[6][7] A common theory in modern economics claims that the rise of women participating in the US labor force in the late 1960s was due to the introduction of a new contraceptive technology, birth control pills, and the adjustment of age of majority laws. The use of birth control gave women the flexibility of opting to invest and advance their career while maintaining a relationship. By having control over the timing of their fertility, they were not running a risk of thwarting their career choices. However, only 40% of the population actually used the birth control pill. This implies that other factors may have contributed to women choosing to invest in advancing their careers. Another factor that may have contributed to the trend was the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which aimed at abolishing wage disparity based on sex. Such legislation diminished sexual discrimination and encouraged more women to enter the labor market by receiving fair remuneration to help raise children. Historical TrendsAccording to the US Census in 1861, one third of women were in the labor force and of these one fourth were married women.[8] According to Ellen DuBoise and Lynn Dumenil, they estimate that the number of women in the labor force from 1800 - 1900 are:[9]
According to the US Department of Labor, as of 2017 women make up 47% of the total labor force with 70% of them mothers with children under 18 years of age.[10] MenMen's labor force participation has been falling consistently since at least the 1960s.[11] This applies to both the overall and prime working age (25-54), as discussed in the analysis section below. Analyzing the LFPR The line chart shows the long-term decline in labor force participation for U.S. males of prime-working age (25–54 years), based on educational attainment.[12] Overall rateFrom 1962 to 1999, women entering the U.S. workforce represented a nearly 8 percentage point increase in the overall LFPR.[13] The U.S. overall LFPR (age 16+) has been falling since its all-time high point of 67.3% reached in January–April 2000, reaching 62.7% by January 2018.[14] This decline since 2000 is primarily driven by the retirement of the Baby Boom generation. Since the overall labor force is defined as those age 16+, an aging society with more persons past the typical prime working age (25-54) exerts a steady downward influence on the LFPR. The decline was forecast by economists and demographers going back into the 1990s, if not earlier. For example, during 1999 the BLS forecast that the overall LFPR would be 66.9% in 2015 and 63.2% in 2025.[15] A 2006 forecast by Federal Reserve economists (i.e., before the Great Recession that began in December 2007) estimated the LFPR would be below 64% by 2016, close to the 62.7% average that year.[16] The labor force participation rate decreases when the percentage increase in the defined population (denominator) is greater than the percentage increase in the labor force (i.e., the sum of employed and unemployed, the numerator). With respect to the unemployment rate, if the percentage increase in the number of unemployed (numerator) is greater than the percentage increase in the number in the labor force (denominator), the unemployment rate will rise.[17] Prime working age rateEconomists also analyze the LFPR for those prime-aged workers, aged 25–54. Mathematically, this ratio is computed with a numerator (labor force age 25-54) and denominator (civilian population age 25-54). This can help remove the impact of aging demographics, to better understand trends among working-aged persons. The prime-aged LFPR peaked at 84.5% at three times between October 1997 and April 2000. Prior to the Great Recession, the rate was 83.3% in November 2007, then fell to a trough of 80.5% in July 2015, before steadily climbing back to 81.7% in January 2018.[18] It is one of the few key labor market variables that had yet to recover its pre-crisis level as of January 2018 and is an indicator of slack in the labor market.[19]
The Congressional Budget Office explained in 2018 higher educational attainment is correlated with higher labor force participation. Prime-aged men tend to be out of the labor force due to disability, while a key reason for women is caring for family members. To the extent an aging population requires the assistance of prime-aged family members at home, this also presents a downward pressure on this cohort's participation.[3] Foreign-born (Immigrants)There were 27.8 million foreign-born workers in the labor force as of January 2018.[22] This group had an overall LFPR of 65.1% in January 2018.[23] International comparisonFor 2017, the Central Intelligence Agency ranked the U.S. as having the fourth largest labor force in the world at about 160 million, behind China (807 million), India (522 million), and the European Union (235 million).[24] See also
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