ایدئالیسم استعلایی

ایدئالیسم استعلایی یک نظام فلسفی^[۱] است که فیلسوف آلمانی ایمانوئل کانت در سدهٔ هجدهم بنیان گذاشت. برنامهٔ معرفت‌شناختی کانت^[۲] در سراسر نقد عقل محض (۱۷۸۱) دیده می‌شود. کانت از اصطلاح استعلایی —اصطلاحی که نیازمند توضیح ویژه‌ای است—^[۳] برای اشاره به این نکته استفاده می‌کند که رویکرد فلسفی او به شناخت، فراتر از توجه صرف به شواهد حسی —که ویژگی اصلی فیلسوفان تجربه‌گرای پیش از او بود— می‌رود و مستلزم فهم شیوه‌های ذاتیِ ذهن در پردازش آن داده‌های حسی است.^[۴]

کانت در بخش «زیبایی‌شناسی استعلاییِ» نقد عقل محض توضیح می‌دهد که فضا و زمان صورت‌های نابِ شهود انسانی‌اند که به‌وسیلهٔ قوهٔ حساسیتِ خود ما فراهم می‌شوند. فضا و زمان در «بیرون» از ما وجودی مستقل ندارند، بلکه صورت‌های «ذهنی» حساسیت ما هستند و ازاین‌رو شرط‌های ضروریِ پیشینی برای آن‌اند که اشیایی که در تجربه با آن‌ها مواجه می‌شویم اساساً بتوانند برای ما پدیدار شوند. کانت زمان و فضا را نه‌تنها «از نظر تجربی واقعی»، بلکه «از نظر استعلایی ایدئال» توصیف می‌کند.^[۵]

کانت استدلال می‌کند که سوژهٔ آگاه، اُبژه‌های تجربه را نه آن‌گونه که در خودِ خویش هستند، بلکه تنها به همان صورتی که تحت شرایط حساسیت ما برایمان پدیدار می‌شوند، می‌شناسد. این دیدگاه با الگوی ادراک او —که در آغاز «زیبایی‌شناسی استعلایی» طرح می‌شود— سازگار است؛ جایی که او میان واقعیت تجربیِ پدیدارها که موضوع مطالعهٔ علوم تجربی هستند و واقعیت نومنیِ اشیا آن‌گونه که در خود هستند و مستقل از مشاهدهٔ تجربی‌اند، تمایز می‌گذارد.^[۶]

ازاین‌رو آموزهٔ کانت دامنهٔ شناخت ما را به پدیدارهایی که در حساسیت ما داده می‌شوند محدود می‌کند و این امکان را انکار می‌کند که بتوانیم نسبت به اشیا آن‌گونه که در خود هستند شناخت داشته باشیم، یعنی اشیا چنان‌که مستقل از تجربهٔ ما و مستقل از شیوه‌ای که قوای شناختی ما آن‌ها را درمی‌یابند وجود دارند.^[۷]

منابع

↑ Kitcher, Patrica (1996) [First edition originally published in 1781; second edition originally published in 1787]. "Introduction by Patricia Kitcher, 3. Transcendental Aesthetic: The Science of Sensory Perception, B. Space, Time, and Mathematics". Critique of Pure Reason. By Kant, Immanuel. Translated by Pluhar, Werner S. (Unified Edition with all variants from the 1781 and 1787 editions ed.). Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. p. xxxvi. ISBN 0-87220-257-7. This is one of the first conclusions of 'transcendental idealism', Kant's own name for his philosophical system, and we need to pause to consider it carefully to avoid some standard misunderstandings.
↑ Kitcher, Patrica (1996) [First edition originally published in 1781; second edition originally published in 1787]. "Introduction by Patricia Kitcher, 2. Prefaces and Introduction: Kant's Central Problem". Critique of Pure Reason. By Kant, Immanuel. Translated by Pluhar, Werner S. (Unified Edition with all variants from the 1781 and 1787 editions ed.). Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. p. l. ISBN 0-87220-257-7. Kant prefaces the Critique with a lament about the sad state of metaphysics. But his program for reform is thoroughly epistemological. It is only by working our way to a better understanding of the sources and limits of human knowledge that we will be able to figure out what metaphysical questions can fruitfully be asked.
↑ Kitcher, Patrica (1996) [First edition originally published in 1781; second edition originally published in 1787]. "Introduction by Patricia Kitcher, 2. Prefaces and Introduction: Kant's Central Problem". Critique of Pure Reason. By Kant, Immanuel. Translated by Pluhar, Werner S. (Unified Edition with all variants from the 1781 and 1787 editions ed.). Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. p. l. ISBN 0-87220-257-7. Because of the unusual nature of his enterprise, Kant gave it a special name: 'transcendental' philosophy. The goal of transcendental philosophy is to investigate the necessary conditions for knowledge with a view to showing that some of those necessary conditions are a priori, universal and necessary features of our knowledge, that derive from the mind's own ways of dealing with the data of the senses. The term 'transcendental' has often been a source of confusion, because it includes three not obviously related ideas: (1) the idea that some conditions are necessary for knowledge and (2) the idea that some claims are a priori, in stating necessary and universal features of the world, and (3) the idea that some features of our knowledge are a priori, in the sense that they do not derive from sensory evidence, but from our minds' ways of dealing with sensory evidence. What is distinctive about Kant's philosophy is his belief that some of the necessary conditions for knowledge are also a priori, in all fours sense of that term: i.e. , these conditions are universal, necessary, cannot be established by sensory experience, and reflect how a mind deals with sensory experience; the term 'transcendental' constantly draws attention to that complex doctrine.
↑ Durant, Will (1933). "VI. Immanuel Kant and German Idealism, III. The Critique of Pure Reason, 1. Transcendental Esthetic". The Story of Philosophy. New York: Simon & Schuster (published 1953). p. 267. The effort to answer this question, to study the inherent structure of the mind, or the innate laws of thought, is what Kant calls 'transcendental philosophy', because it is a problem transcending sense experience. 'I call knowledge transcendental which is occupied not so much with objects, as with a priori concepts of objects'—with our modes of correlating our experience into knowledge.
↑ Kant 1999, p. A36/B52.
↑ Kant 1999, p. A20/B34.
↑ Kant 1999, p. A84–130, B116–169.

کتاب‌شناسی

Kant, Immanuel (1999). Critique of Pure Reason (The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant). Translated and edited by Paul Guyer and Allen W. Wood. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5216-5729-7.

این یک مقالهٔ خرد فلسفه است. می‌توانید با گسترش آن به ویکی‌پدیا کمک کنید.

[Kitcher_Intro-1] Kitcher, Patrica (1996) [First edition originally published in 1781; second edition originally published in 1787]. "Introduction by Patricia Kitcher, 3. Transcendental Aesthetic: The Science of Sensory Perception, B. Space, Time, and Mathematics". Critique of Pure Reason. By Kant, Immanuel. Translated by Pluhar, Werner S. (Unified Edition with all variants from the 1781 and 1787 editions ed.). Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. p. xxxvi. ISBN 0-87220-257-7. This is one of the first conclusions of 'transcendental idealism', Kant's own name for his philosophical system, and we need to pause to consider it carefully to avoid some standard misunderstandings.

[2] Kitcher, Patrica (1996) [First edition originally published in 1781; second edition originally published in 1787]. "Introduction by Patricia Kitcher, 2. Prefaces and Introduction: Kant's Central Problem". Critique of Pure Reason. By Kant, Immanuel. Translated by Pluhar, Werner S. (Unified Edition with all variants from the 1781 and 1787 editions ed.). Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. p. l. ISBN 0-87220-257-7. Kant prefaces the Critique with a lament about the sad state of metaphysics. But his program for reform is thoroughly epistemological. It is only by working our way to a better understanding of the sources and limits of human knowledge that we will be able to figure out what metaphysical questions can fruitfully be asked.

[3] Kitcher, Patrica (1996) [First edition originally published in 1781; second edition originally published in 1787]. "Introduction by Patricia Kitcher, 2. Prefaces and Introduction: Kant's Central Problem". Critique of Pure Reason. By Kant, Immanuel. Translated by Pluhar, Werner S. (Unified Edition with all variants from the 1781 and 1787 editions ed.). Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. p. l. ISBN 0-87220-257-7. Because of the unusual nature of his enterprise, Kant gave it a special name: 'transcendental' philosophy. The goal of transcendental philosophy is to investigate the necessary conditions for knowledge with a view to showing that some of those necessary conditions are a priori, universal and necessary features of our knowledge, that derive from the mind's own ways of dealing with the data of the senses. The term 'transcendental' has often been a source of confusion, because it includes three not obviously related ideas: (1) the idea that some conditions are necessary for knowledge and (2) the idea that some claims are a priori, in stating necessary and universal features of the world, and (3) the idea that some features of our knowledge are a priori, in the sense that they do not derive from sensory evidence, but from our minds' ways of dealing with sensory evidence. What is distinctive about Kant's philosophy is his belief that some of the necessary conditions for knowledge are also a priori, in all fours sense of that term: i.e. , these conditions are universal, necessary, cannot be established by sensory experience, and reflect how a mind deals with sensory experience; the term 'transcendental' constantly draws attention to that complex doctrine.

[Durant-4] Durant, Will (1933). "VI. Immanuel Kant and German Idealism, III. The Critique of Pure Reason, 1. Transcendental Esthetic". The Story of Philosophy. New York: Simon & Schuster (published 1953). p. 267. The effort to answer this question, to study the inherent structure of the mind, or the innate laws of thought, is what Kant calls 'transcendental philosophy', because it is a problem transcending sense experience. 'I call knowledge transcendental which is occupied not so much with objects, as with a priori concepts of objects'—with our modes of correlating our experience into knowledge.

[FOOTNOTEKant1999A36/B52-5] Kant 1999, p. A36/B52.

[FOOTNOTEKant1999A20/B34-6] Kant 1999, p. A20/B34.

[FOOTNOTEKant1999A84–130,_B116–169-7] Kant 1999, p. A84–130, B116–169.

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