امپراتوری بیزانس

امپراتوری بیزانس Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων Basileía Rhōmaíōn Imperium Romanum امپراتوری بیزانس
۳۹۵–۱۴۳۵
سولیدوس به‌همراه تصویر هراکلیوس (پ. ۶۱۰–۶۴۱), با پسرش کنستانتین سوم. (نک: Byzantine insignia)
امپراتوری در سال ۵۵۵ میلادی، در دورهٔ ژوستینین یکم، در وسیع‌ترین حالت آن از زمان سقوط امپراتوری روم غربی (واسال‌ها به‌رنگ صورتی هستند)
پایتخت	قسطنطنیه (۳۳۰–۱۲۰۴، ۱۲۶۱–۱۴۵۳)
زبان(های) رایج	Late Latin، یونانی کوینه (۳۹۵–۶۱۰) یونانی بیزانسی (۶۱۰–۱۴۵۳)
دین(ها)	مسیحیت (کلیسای ارتدکس شرقی) (تحمل‌کردن پس از فرمان میلان در سال ۳۱۳؛ دین دولتی پس از سال ۳۸۰)
حکومت	پادشاهی انتخابی
فهرست امپراتوران بیزانس
• ۳۹۵–۴۰۸	آرکادیوس
• ۵۲۷–۵۶۵	ژوستینین یکم
• ۶۱۰–۶۴۱	هراکلیوس
• ۷۱۷–۷۴۱	لئون سوم
• ۹۷۶–۱۰۲۵	باسیل دوم
• ۱۰۸۱–۱۱۱۸	آلکسیوس یکم
• ۱۲۵۹–۱۲۸۲	میخائیل هشتم
• ۱۴۴۹–۱۴۵۳	کنستانتین یازدهم
دوره تاریخی	دوران باستان متأخر تا قرون وسطای متأخر
• ماکسیمیان (diarchy)	۱ آوریل ۲۸۶
• قسطنطنیه	۱۱ مه ۳۳۰
• آخرین تقسیم شرقی-غربی امپراتوری پس از مرگ تئودئوس یکم	۱۷ ژانویه ۳۹۵
• سقوط نهایی امپراتوری روم غربی	۲۵ آوریل ۴۸۰
• جنگ صلیبی چهارم؛ تأسیس امپراتوری لاتین	۱۲ آوریل ۱۲۰۴
• فتح دوبارهٔ قسطنطنیه توسط پالایولوگوس‌ها	۲۵ ژوئیه ۱۲۶۱
• سقوط قسطنطنیه	۲۹ مه ۱۴۵۳
• سقوط امپراتوری ترابوزان	۱۵ اوت ۱۴۶۱
جمعیت
• ۴۵۷ میلادی	۱۶٬۰۰۰٬۰۰۰
• ۵۶۵ میلادی	۱۹٬۰۰۰٬۰۰۰
• ۷۷۵ میلادی	۷٬۰۰۰٬۰۰۰
• ۱۰۲۵ میلادی	۱۲٬۰۰۰٬۰۰۰
• ۱۳۲۰ میلادی	۲٬۰۰۰٬۰۰۰
واحد پول	سولیدوس، histamenon و hyperpyron
پیشین پسین امپراتوری روم امپراتوری عثمانی
^  ^  ^  ^

امپراتوری بیزانس که با عنوان‌های امپراتوری روم شرقی و بیزانتیوم نیز شناخته می‌شود، ادامهٔ امپراتوری روم در استان‌های شرقی این امپراتوری در طول دوران باستان متأخر و قرون وسطی بود و پایتخت آن قسطنطنیه (استانبول امروزی، که با نام بیزانتیوم تأسیس شد) بود. این امپراتوری از سقوط امپراتوری روم غربی در سدهٔ پنجم میلادی در امان ماند و به‌مدت هزار سال دیگر به حیات خود ادامه داد تا اینکه در سال ۱۴۵۳ میلادی توسط امپراتوری عثمانی ساقط شد. در بیش‌تر مدت حیات این امپراتوری، امپراتوری بیزانس از نظر اقتصادی، فرهنگی، و قدرت نظامی، قوی‌ترین حکومت در اروپا بود. هر دو اصطلاح «امپراتوری بیزانس» و «امپراتوری روم شرقی»، اصطلاحاتی تاریخ‌نگارانه هستند که پس دوران حکومت آن‌ها توسط تاریخ‌نگاران وضع شد؛ شهروندان این امپراتوری، خود را امپراتوری روم (یونانی: Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων, tr. Basileia Rhōmaiōn; لاتین: Imperium Romanum), یا رومانیا (Ῥωμανία)می‌خواندند و خودشان را «رومی» می‌دانستند.

چندین رویداد مجزا از سده‌های ۴ تا ۶ میلادی نشان‌دهندهٔ تقسیم شرقی یونانی و غربی لاتینی است. کنستانتین یکم (پ. ۳۲۴-۳۳۷) امپراتوری را سازمان‌دهی مجدد کرد، قسطنطنیه را به‌عنوان پایتخت برگزید، و مسیحیت را به‌رسمیت شناخت. در دورهٔ تئودئوس یکم (پ. ۳۷۹-۳۹۵) مسیحیت به دین رسمی امپراتوری تبدیل شد و پرستش دیگر ادیان ممنوع شد. سرانجام، در دورهٔ امپراتوری هراکلیوس (پ. ۶۱۰-۶۴۱) ارتش و دیوانسالاری امپراتوری بازسازی شد و زبان یونانی به‌جای زبان لاتین، به‌عنوان رسمی امپراتوری مورد استفاده قرار گرفت. بنابراین، اگرچه دولت روم تداوم یافت و سنت‌های آن حفظ شدند، اما تاریخ‌نگاران این امپراتوری را از روم باستان متمایز می‌دانند، زیرا امپراتوری بیزانس در قسطنطنیه مرکزیت داشت و دارای فرهنگ یونانی بود و کلیسای ارتدکس شرقی نماد بارز آن بود.

منبع‌شناسی

منابع اولیه

• Choniates, Nicetas (1912). "The Sack of Constantinople (1204)". Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History by D.C. Munro (Series 1, Vol 3:1). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 15–16.
• Cinnamus, Ioannes (1976). Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus. New York and West Sussex: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04080-6.
• Eusebius. Life of Constantine (Book IV). Christian Classics Ethereal Library.
• Geoffrey of Villehardouin (1963). "The Conquest of Constantinople". Chronicles of the Crusades (translated by Margaret R. Shaw). Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044124-7.
• Komnene, Anna (1928). "Books X-XIII". The Alexiad (translated by Elizabeth A. S. Dawes). Internet Medieval Sourcebook.
• Seeck, Otto, ed. (1876). Notitia Dignitatum; accedunt Notitia Urbis Constantinopolitanae Laterculi Prouinciarum. Berlin: Weidmann.
• Thurn, Hans, ed. (1973). Ioannis Scylitzae Synopsis historiarum. Berlin-New York: De Gruyter. ISBN 9783110022858.

منابع ثانویه

• Alemany, Agustí (2000). Sources on the Alans: A Critical Compilation. Leiden: Brill. pp. 170–243. ISBN 90-04-11442-4.
• Ahrweiler, Hélène; Laiou, Angeliki E. (1998). "Preface". Studies on the Internal Diaspora of the Byzantine Empire. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 0-88402-247-1.
• Anastos, Milton V. (1962). "The History of Byzantine Science. Report on the Dumbarton Oaks Symposium of 1961". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 16: 409–411. doi:10.2307/1291170. ISSN 0070-7546. JSTOR 1291170.
• Angold, Michael (1997). The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204: A Political History. London: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-29468-4.
• Antonucci, Michael (1993). "War by Other Means: The Legacy of Byzantium". History Today. 43 (2): 11–13. ISSN 0018-2753. Retrieved 21 May 2007.
• Apostolides, Sophocles Evangelinus (1992). Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods. Hildesheim: Georg Olms. ISBN 3-487-05765-4.
• Ash, John (1995). A Byzantine Journey. New York: Random House Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-84511-307-0.
• Austin, Roland G. (1934). "Zeno's Game of τάβλη". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 54 (2): 202–205. doi:10.2307/626864. JSTOR 626864.
• Bayless, William N. (1976). "The Treaty with the Huns of 443". The American Journal of Philology. 97 (2): 176–179. doi:10.2307/294410. JSTOR 294410.
• Baynes, Norman Hepburn (1912). "The Restoration of the Cross at Jerusalem". The English Historical Review. 27 (106): 287–299. doi:10.1093/ehr/XXVII.CVI.287. ISSN 0013-8266.
• Baynes, Norman Hepburn; Moss, Henry St. Lawrence Beaufort, eds. (1948). Byzantium: An Introduction to East Roman Civilization. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Baynes, Spencer (1907). "Vlachs". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). New York.
• Beaton, Roderick (1996). The Medieval Greek Romance. New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-12032-2.
• Beckwith, John (1993) [1970]. Early Christian and Byzantine Art. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-05296-0.
• Béhar, Pierre (1999). Vestiges d'Empires: La Décomposition de l'Europe Centrale et Balkanique. Paris: Éditions Desjonquères. ISBN 2-84321-015-1.
• Benz, Ernst (1963). The Eastern Orthodox Church: Its Thought and Life. Piscataway: Aldine Transaction. ISBN 978-0-202-36298-4.
• Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (1998). A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change. New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16111-8.
• Birkenmeier, John W. (2002). The Development of the Komnenian Army: 1081–1180. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-11710-5.
• Blume, Fred H. (2008). Kearley, Timothy (ed.). Annotated Justinian Code. Laramie: University of Wyoming.
• Bowersock, G.M. (1997). Julian the Apostate. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-48882-3.
• Bray, R. S. (2004). Armies of Pestilence: The Impact of Disease on History. James Clarke. ISBN 0-227-17240-X.
• Browning, Robert (1983). "The Continuity of Hellenism in the Byzantine world: Appearance or Reality?". In Winnifrith, Tom; Murray, Penelope (eds.). Greece Old and New. New York: Macmillan. pp. 111–128. ISBN 0-333-27836-4.
• Browning, Robert (1992). The Byzantine Empire. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press. ISBN 0-8132-0754-1.
• Bryce, James (1901). Studies in History and Jurisprudence, Vol. 1. H. Frowde. ISBN 1-4021-9046-8.
• Brooke, Zachary Nugent (1962). A History of Europe, from 911 to 1198. London: Methuen.
• Burns, Thomas S. (1991). A History of Ostrogoths. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-20600-6.
• Bury, John Bagnall (1923). History of the Later Roman Empire. London: Macmillan.
• Bury, John Bagnall; Philotheus (1911). The Imperial Administrative System of the Ninth Century: With a Revised Text of the Kletorologion of Philotheos. London: Oxford University Press.
• Bury, John Bagnall (1920). The Early History of the Slavonic Settlements in Dalmatia, Croatia, & Serbia. New York: Macmillan.
• Cameron, Averil (1979). "Images of Authority: Elites and Icons in Late Sixth-century Byzantium". Past and Present. 84 (1): 3. doi:10.1093/past/84.1.3.
• Cameron, Averil (2006). The Byzantines. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-9833-2.
• Cameron, Averil (2009). Οι Βυζαντινοί (به یونانی). Athens: Psychogios. ISBN 978-960-453-529-3.
• Campbell, George L. (2000) [1991]. Compendium of the World's Languages: Abaza to Kurdish. New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-20296-5.
• Chapman, John H. (1971). Studies on the Early Papacy. Kennikat Press, University of Michigan. ISBN 0-8046-1139-4.
• Chrysos, Evangelos (1992). "Byzantine Diplomacy, CE 300–800: Means and End". In Jonathan Shepard, Simon Franklin (ed.). Byzantine Diplomacy: Papers from the Twenty-Fourth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, Cambridge, March 1990 (Society for the Promotion of Byzant). Variorum. ISBN 0-86078-338-3.
• Clark, Victoria (2000). Why Angels Fall: A Journey through Orthodox Europe from Byzantium to Kosovo. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-23396-5.
• Cohen, H. Floris (1994). The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-11280-2.
• Comrie, Bernard (1987). "Russian". In Shopen, Timothy (ed.). Languages and Their Status. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 91–152. ISBN 0-8122-1249-5.
• Dalby, Andrew; Bourbou, Chryssi; Koder, Johannes; Leontsinē, Maria (2013). Flavours and Delights: Tastes and Pleasures of Ancient and Byzantine Cuisine. Athens and Thessaloniki: Armos Publications. ISBN 9789605277475.
• Davidson, Alan (2014). The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199677337.
• Davies, Norman (1996). Europe: A History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-820171-0.
• Day, Gerald W. (1977). "Manuel and the Genoese: A Reappraisal of Byzantine Commercial Policy in the Late Twelfth Century". The Journal of Economic History. 37 (2): 289–301. doi:10.1017/S0022050700096947. JSTOR 2118759.
• Dennis, George T. (1985). Three Byzantine Military Treatises. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks.
• Diehl, Charles (1948). "Byzantine Art". In Baynes, Norman Hepburn; Moss, Henry St. Lawrence Beaufort (eds.). Byzantium: An Introduction to East Roman Civilization. Oxford: Clarendon. OCLC 1058121.
• Drake, H. A. (1995). "Constantine and Consensus". Church History. 64 (1): 1–15. doi:10.2307/3168653. JSTOR 3168653.
• Duiker, William J.; Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2010). The Essential World History. Boston: Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0-495-90227-0.
• El-Cheikh, Nadia Maria (2004). Byzantium Viewed by the Arabs. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-932885-30-6.
• Esler, Philip Francis (2004). The Early Christian World. New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-33312-1.
• Evans, James Allan Stewart (2005). The Emperor Justinian and the Byzantine Empire. Westport: Greenwood. ISBN 0-313-32582-0.
• Evans, Helen C. (2004). Byzantium, Faith and Power (1261–1557). New York, NY: Metropolitan Museum of Art/Yale University Press. ISBN 1-58839-114-0.
• Faas, Patrick (2005) [1994]. Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226233475.
• Fine, John V.A. (1983). The early medieval Balkans. The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08149-7.
• Foss, Clive (1975). "The Persians in Asia Minor and the end of antiquity". The English Historical Review. 90 (357): 721–747. doi:10.1093/ehr/XC.CCCLVII.721. JSTOR 567292.
• Fossier, Robert; Sondheimer, Janet (1997). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-26644-0.
• Fouracre, Paul; Gerberding, Richard A. (1996). Late Merovingian France: History and Hagiography, 640–720. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-4791-9.
• Freeman, Charles (1999). The Greek Achievement – The Foundation of the Western World. New York: Penguin. ISBN 0-670-88515-0.
• Friell, Gerard; Williams, Stephen (2005). Theodosius: The Empire at Bay. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-78262-7.
• Gabriel, Richard A. (2002). The Great Armies of Antiquity. Westport: Greenwood. ISBN 0-275-97809-5.
• Garland, Lynda (1999). Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, CE 527–1204. New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-14688-7.
• Gibbon, Edward (1906). J. B. Bury (with an Introduction by W. E. H. Lecky) (ed.). The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Volumes II, III, and IX). New York: Fred de Fau.
• Grabar, André (1984). L'iconoclasme Byzantin: le dossier archéologique. Flammarion. ISBN 2-08-081634-9.
• Grant, Robert M. (1975). "Religion and Politics at the Council at Nicaea". The Journal of Religion. 55 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1086/486406. JSTOR 1202069.
• Greatrex, Geoffrey B. (2005). "Byzantium and the East in the Sixth Century". In Maas, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 477–509. ISBN 0-521-81746-3.
• Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002). The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363–630 AD). New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-14687-9.
• Gregory, Timothy E. (2010). A History of Byzantium. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-8471-X.
• Grierson, Philip (1999). Byzantine Coinage (PDF). Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 0-88402-274-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2007.
• Gross, Feliks (1999). Citizenship and Ethnicity: The Growth and Development of a Democratic Multiethnic Institution. Westport: Greenwood. ISBN 0-313-30932-9.
• Gutas, Dimitri (1998). Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement. New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-06132-6.
• Hacikyan, Agop Jack; Basmajian, Gabriel; Franchuk, Edward S.; Ouzounian, Nourhan (2002). The Heritage of Armenian Literature: From the Sixth to the Eighteenth Century. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0-8143-3023-1.
• Haldon, John (1990). Byzantium in the Seventh Century: The Transformation of a Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-31917-1.
• Haldon, John (2004). "The Fate of the Late Roman Senatorial Elite: Extinction or Transformation?". In John Haldon and Lawrence I. Conrad (ed.). The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East VI: Elites Old and New in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East. Darwin. ISBN 0-87850-144-4.
• Halsall, Paul (1998). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1643 C.E." New York: Fordham University. Retrieved 21 April 2012.
• Harris, Jonathan (2014). Byzantium and the Crusades (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-78093-767-0.
• Harvey, Alan (2003). Economic Expansion in the Byzantine Empire, 900–1200. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52190-4.
• Haywood, John (2001) [1997]. Cassell's Atlas of World History. London: Cassell. ISBN 0-304-35757-X.
• Heather, Peter (2005). The Fall of the Roman Empire. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-330-49136-5.
• Hindley, Geoffrey (2004). A Brief History of the Crusades. London: Robinson. ISBN 978-1-84119-766-1.
• Hooper, Nicholas; Bennett, Matthew (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44049-1.
• James, Liz (2010). A Companion to Byzantium. Chichester: John Wiley. ISBN 1-4051-2654-X.
• Jayyusi, Salma Khadra; Marín, Manuela (1994) [1992]. The Legacy of Muslim Spain (2nd ed.). Leiden, New York and Köln: E.J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09599-1.
• Jenkins, Romilly James Heald (1987). Byzantium: The Imperial Centuries, CE 610–1071. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-6667-4.
• Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin (1986). The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social Economic and Administrative Survey. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-3353-1.
• Kaegi, Walter Emil (2003). Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-81459-6.
• Kaldellis, Anthony (2007). Hellenism in Byzantium: The Transformations of Greek Identity and the Reception of the Classical Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-87688-5.
• Kaldellis, Anthony (2015). The Byzantine Republic: People and Power in New Rome. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674365407.
• Karlin-Heyer, P. (1967). "When Military Affairs Were in Leo's Hands: A Note on Byzantine Foreign Policy (886–912)". Tradition. 23: 15–40. JSTOR 27830825.
• Kartomi, Margaret J. (1990). On Concepts and Classifications of Musical Instruments. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-42548-7.
• Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich, ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6.
• Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich; Constable, Giles (1982). People and Power in Byzantium: An Introduction to Modern Byzantine Studies. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 0-88402-103-3.
• Kazhdan, Aleksandr Petrovich; Epstein, Ann Wharton (1985). Change in Byzantine Culture in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05129-7.
• Kean, Roger Michael (2006). Forgotten Power: Byzantium: Bulwark of Christianity. Shropshire: Thalamus. ISBN 1-902886-07-0.
• King, David A. (March 1991). "Reviews: The Astronomical Works of Gregory Chioniades, Volume I: The Zij al- Ala'i by Gregory Chioniades, David Pingree; An Eleventh-Century Manual of Arabo-Byzantine Astronomy by Alexander Jones". Isis. 82 (1): 116–118. doi:10.1086/355661.
• Klein, Holgen A. (2004). "Eastern Objects and Western Desires: Relics and Reliquaries between Byzantium and the West". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 58: 283–314. doi:10.2307/3591389. JSTOR 3591389.
• Köprülü, Mehmet Fuad (1992). The Origins of the Ottoman Empire. Translated and edited by Gary Leiser. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-0819-1.
• Kountoura-Galake, Eleonora (1996). Ο βυζαντινός κλήρος και η κοινωνία των "Σκοτεινών Αἰώνων ["The Byzantine Clergy and the Society of the 'Dark Ages'"] (به یونانی). Athens: Ethniko Idryma Erevnon. ISBN 978-960-7094-46-9.
• Kuhoff, Wolfgang (2002). "Die diokletianische Tetrarchie als Epoche einer historischen Wende in antiker und moderner Sicht". International Journal of the Classical Tradition. 9 (2): 177–194. doi:10.1007/BF02898434. JSTOR 30224306.
• Laiou, Angeliki E. (2002). "Exchange and Trade, Seventh-Twelfth Centuries". In Angeliki E. Laiou (ed.). The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 2). Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. pp. 697–708. Archived from the original on 30 September 2013.
• Laiou, Angeliki E.; Morisson, Cécile (2007). The Byzantine Economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-84978-0.
• Laiou, Angeliki E. (2002). "Writing the Economic History of Byzantium". In Angeliki E. Laiou (ed.). The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 1) (PDF). Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. pp. 3–8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 September 2013.
• Lapidge, Michael; Blair, John; Keynes, Simon (1998). The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England. Malden: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-22492-0.
• Lenski, Noel (1999). "Assimilation and Revolt in the Territory of Isauria, From the 1st Century BC to the 6th Century AD". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 42 (4): 413–465. doi:10.1163/1568520991201687. ISSN 0022-4995. JSTOR 3632602.
• Louth, Andrew (2005). "The Byzantine Empire in the Seventh Century". In Paul Fouracre and Rosamond McKitterick (ed.). The New Cambridge Medieval History (Volume I). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36291-1.
• Lowry, Heath W. (2003). The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 9780791487266.
• Madden, Thomas F. (2005). Crusades: The Illustrated History. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-03127-9.
• Magdalino, Paul (2002). "Medieval Constantinople: Built Environment and Urban Development". In Angeliki E. Laiou (ed.). The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 2). Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. pp. 529–537. Archived from the original on 30 September 2013.
• Magdalino, Paul (2002). The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 1143–1180. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52653-1.
• Mango, Cyril A. (2007). Η Αυτοκρατορία της Νέας Ρώμης [Byzantium: The Empire of the New Rome] (به یونانی). Translated by Dimitris Tsoungarakis. Athens: Educational Institution of the National Bank of Greece.
• Mango, Cyril A. (2002). The Oxford History of Byzantium. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814098-3.
• Matschke, Klaus-Peter (2002). "Commerce, Trade, Markets, and Money: Thirteenth-Fifteenth Centuries". In Angeliki E. Laiou (ed.). The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 2). Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. pp. 771–806. Archived from the original on 30 September 2013.
• McDonnell, Myles Anthony (2006). Roman Manliness: Virtus and the Roman Republic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82788-1.
• Meier, William N. (2003). "Die Inszenierung einer Katastrophe: Justinian und der Nika-Aufstand". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik (142): 273–300. JSTOR 20191600.
• Merryman, John Henry; Perez-Perdomo, Rogelio (2007). The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Europe and Latin America. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-5569-6.
• Meyendorff, John (1982). The Byzantine Legacy in the Orthodox Church. Yonkers: St Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 0-913836-90-7.
• Millar, Fergus (2006). A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408–450). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24703-5.
• Miller, William (1907). "Monemvasia". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 27.
• Moravcsik, Gyula (1970). Byzantium and the Magyars. Amsterdam: Hakkert.
• Neumann, Iver B. (2006). "Sublime Diplomacy: Byzantine, Early Modern, Contemporary". Millennium: Journal of International Studies. 34 (3): 865–888. doi:10.1177/03058298060340030201. ISSN 1569-2981.
• Neville, Leonora Alice (2004). Authority in Byzantine Provincial Society, 950–1100. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-83865-7.
• Nicol, Donald M. (1993) [1972]. The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521439916.
• Nicol, Donald M. (1996). The Reluctant Emperor: A Biography of John Cantacuzene, Byzantine Emperor and Monk, c. 1295–1383. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521522014.
• Norwich, John Julius (1998). A Short History of Byzantium. Ringwood, Vic.: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-025960-5.
• Norwich, John Julius (1982). A History of Venice. New York: Alfred A. Knopf Incorporated. ISBN 0-394-52410-1.
• Nystazopoulou-Pelekidou, Maria (1970). "Συμβολή εις την χρονολόγησιν των Αβαρικών και Σλαβικών επιδρομών επί Μαυρικίου (582–602) (μετ' επιμέτρου περί των Περσικών πολέμων) [=Contribution to the chronology of Avar and Slav raids during the reign of Maurice (582–602), with an excursus about the Persian Wars"]". Byzantina Symmeikta (به یونانی). 2: 145–206. ISSN 1105-1639. Retrieved 10 March 2012.
• Obolensky, Dimitri (1974) [1971]. The Byzantine Commonwealth: Eastern Europe, 500–1453. London: Cardinal. ISBN 9780351176449.
• Obolensky, Dimitri (1994). Byzantium and the Slavs. Yonkers: St Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 0-88141-008-X.
• Oikonomides, Nikos (1999). "L᾽"Unilinguisme" Officiel de Constantinople Byzantine". Byzantina Symmeikta. 13: 9–22. ISSN 1105-1639. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
• Ostrogorsky, George (1969). History of the Byzantine State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-1198-4.
• Ostrogorsky, George (1959). "The Byzantine Empire in the World of the Seventh Century". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 13: 1–21. doi:10.2307/1291127. JSTOR 1291126.
• Paparrigopoulos, Constantine; Karolidis, Pavlos (1925). Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους ["History of the Greek Nation"], vol. 4 (به یونانی). Eleftheroudakis.
• Parry, Kenneth (1996). Depicting the Word: Byzantine Iconophile Thought of the Eighth and Ninth Centuries. Leiden and New York: Brill. ISBN 90-04-10502-6.
• Patterson, Gordon M. (1995) [1990]. The Essentials of Medieval History: 500 to 1450 AD, the Middle Ages. Piscataway: Research and Education Association. ISBN 978-0-87891-705-1.
• Perrottet, Tony (2004). The Naked Olympics: The True Story of the Ancient Games. Random House. ISBN 978-1-58836-382-4.
• Postan, Michael Moïssey; Miller, Edward; Postan, Cynthia (1987). The Cambridge Economic History of Europe (Volume 2). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-08709-0.
• Pounds, Norman John Greville (1979). An Historical Geography of Europe, 1500–1840. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22379-2.
• Read, Piers Paul (2000) [1999]. The Templars: The Dramatic History of the Knights Templar, The Most Powerful Military Order of the Crusades. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-26658-8.
• Reinert, Stephen W. (2002). "Fragmentation (1204–1453)". In Cyril Mango (ed.). The Oxford History of Byzantium. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 248–283. ISBN 0-19-814098-3.
• Rice, David Talbot (1968). Byzantine Art (3rd Edition). Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Limited.
• Robins, Robert Henry (1993). The Byzantine Grammarians: Their Place in History. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-013574-4.
• Rosser, John H. (2011). "Introduction". Historical Dictionary of Byzantium. Lanham, MA: Scarecrow. ISBN 0-8108-7567-5.
• Runciman, Steven (1990). The Fall of Constantinople, 1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-39832-0.
• Runciman, Steven (2004). The Byzantine Theocracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521545914.
• Salaman, Rena (1986). "The Case of the Missing Fish, or Dolmathon Prolegomena". In Jaine, Tom (ed.). Oxford Symposium on Food & Cookery 1984 & 1985: Cookery: Science, Lore & Books: Proceedings (Introduction by Alan Davidson). London: Prospect Books Limited. pp. 184–187. ISBN 9780907325161.
• Sarantis, Alexander (2009). "War and Diplomacy in Pannonia and the Northwest Balkans during the Reign of Justinian: The Gepid Threat and Imperial Responses". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 63: 15–40. JSTOR 41219761.
• Sedlar, Jean W. (1994). East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500. Vol. III. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-97290-4.
• Seton-Watson, Hugh (1967). The Russian Empire, 1801–1917. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-822152-5.
• Šišić, Ferdo (1990). Povijest Hrvata u vrijeme narodnih vladara: sa 280 slika i 3 karte u bojama. Zagreb: Nakladni zavod Matice hrvatske. ISBN 86-401-0080-2.
• Sotinel, Claire (2005). "Emperors and Popes in the Sixth Century: The Western View". In Maas, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 267–290. ISBN 0-521-81746-3.
• Speck, Paul (1984). "Ikonoklasmus und die Anfänge der Makedonischen Renaissance". Poikila Byzantina. 4: 175–210.
• Stephenson, Paul (2000). Byzantium's Balkan Frontier: A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900–1204. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-77017-3.
• Tarasov, Oleg; Milner-Gulland, R. R. (2004). Icon and Devotion: Sacred Spaces in Imperial Russia. London: Reaktion. ISBN 1-86189-118-0.
• Tatakes, Vasileios N.; Moutafakis, Nicholas J. (2003). Byzantine Philosophy. Indianapolis: Hackett. ISBN 0-87220-563-0.
• Teall, John L. (1967). "The Age of Constantine Change and Continuity in Administration and Economy". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 21: 11–36. JSTOR 1291256.
• Timberlake, Alan (2004). A Reference Grammar of Russian. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77292-1.
• Treadgold, Warren (1995). Byzantium and Its Army, 284–1081. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2420-2.
• Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2.
• Troianos, Spyros; Velissaropoulou-Karakosta, Julia (1997). Ιστορία δικαίου από την αρχαία στην νεώτερη Ελλάδα ["History of law from ancient to modern Greece"]. Athens: Sakkoulas. ISBN 960-232-594-1.
• Vasiliev, Alexander Alexandrovich (1928–1935). History of the Byzantine Empire. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-80925-0.
• Versteegh, Cornelis H. M. (1977). Greek Elements in Arabic Linguistic Thinking. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-04855-3.
• Vryonis, Speros (1971). The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-52-001597-5.
• Watson, Bruce (1993). Sieges: A Comparative Study. Westport: Praeger. ISBN 0-275-94034-9.
• Weitzmann, Kurt (1982). The Icon. London: Evans Brothers. ISBN 0-237-45645-1.
• Wells, Herbert George (1922). A Short History of the World. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0-06-492674-5.
• Whittow, Mark (1996). The Making of Byzantium, 600–1025. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-20496-4.
• Wickham, Chris (2009). The Inheritance of Rome: A History of Europe from 400 to 1000. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-02098-2.
• Wolff, Robert Lee (1948). "Romania: The Latin Empire of Constantinople". Speculum. 23 (1): 1–34. doi:10.2307/2853672. JSTOR 2853672.
• Wroth, Warwick (1908). Catalogue of the Imperial Byzantine Coins in the British Museum. British Museum Dept. of Coins and Medals. ISBN 1-4021-8954-0.