الجزایر
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مختصات: ۳۶°۴۲′ شمالی ۳°۱۳′ شرقی / ۳۶٫۷۰۰°شمالی ۳٫۲۱۷°شرقی
اَلجَزایر (به عربی: الجزائر)(به فرانسوی: Algérie) با نام رسمی جمهوری دموکراتیک خلق الجزایر کشوری است در شمال قاره آفریقا، میان مراکش و تونس. پایتختش الجزیره نام دارد. مردم الجزایر عرب و بربر هستند، و دین رسمی‌شان اسلام و مذهبشان سنی است. مساحت آن ۲/۳۸۱/۷۴۱ کیلومتر مربع و در تخمین سال ۲۰۱۸ جمعیت آن حدود ۴۲ میلیون نفر بوده‌است. زبان رسمی الجزایر عربی است ولی به زبان بربری و فرانسوی نیز صحبت می‌کنند. در ژوئیه سال ۱۹۶۲ الجزایر پس از ۱۳۲ سال، استقلال خود را اعلام کرد و از استعمار فرانسه رها شد. پیش‌درآمد این رهایی هشت سال جنگ بود با صدها هزار کشته. سایه این گذشته بر مناسبات فرانسه و الجزایر همچنان سنگینی می‌کند. الجزایر تحت تأثیر ناآرامی‌های سیاسی موسوم به بهار عربی که بخش‌هایی از خاورمیانه و شمال آفریقا را فرا گرفت، واقع نشد و عمدتاً از آن مصون ماند. ناظران معتقدند علت عدم سرایت بهار عربی به الجزایر، تجربه تلخی بود که مردم این کشور از کشتارهای خونین دهه ۱۹۹۰ داشتند.[۲] در پی اعتراضات و تظاهرات خیابانی گسترده علیه حکومت و رئیس جمهور در سال ۲۰۱۹ که هفته ها ادامه داشت و به درگیری با نیروهای ضد شورش و مجروح و کشته شدن تعدای از تظاهر کنندگان منجر شد، سرانجام عبدالعزیز بوتفلیقه رئیس جمهور وقت الجزایر که بیمار بود، مجبور به کناره گیری از قدرت شد.
جغرافیا[ویرایش] الجزایر کشوری در شمال قاره آفریقا است، که از سمت شرق به تونس و لیبی از سمت غرب به مراکش و صحرا، از جنوب غربی موریتانی، از سمت شمال به دریای مدیترانه و از سمت جنوب به نیجر و مالی محدود است. مساحت آن حدود ۲/۳۸۱/۷۴۱ کیلومتر مربع یعنی تقریباً سه برابر فرانسه و در حدود یک برابر و نیم ایران است. از شهرهای بزرگ الجزایر، الجزیره پایتخت کشور، و وهران و قسنطینه و عنابه و باتنه را باید نام برد. الجزایر بزرگترین کشور در آفریقا به لحاظ مساحت می‌باشد. مساحت این کشور ۲ میلیون و ۳۸۱ هزار و ۷۴۰ کیلومتر مربع است، قسمت اعظم مناطق ساحلی الجزایر کوهستانی است و بنادر طبیعی اندکی دارد. منطقه‌ای که از ساحل شروع می‌شود و تا تل اطلس امتداد می‌یابد، حاصل‌خیز می‌باشد. در جنوب تل اطلس استپ‌هایی وجود دارند که تا اطلس صحرایی امتداد پیدا می‌کنند، صحرا در مناطق جنوبی‌تر قرار دارد. جبال هقار منطقه‌ای مرتفع در مرکز صحرا و در جنوب الجزایر است. شهرهای مهم الجزایر، الجزیره، آوران، قسنطینه و عنابه می‌باشند. شمال الجزایر آب و هوای معتدل مدیترانه‌ای دارد. در تل اطلس، دمای هوا در تابستان بین ۲۱ تا ۲۴ درجه سانتی‌گراد و در زمستان بین ۱۰ تا ۱۲ درجه سانتی‌گراد می‌باشد و رطوبت هوا زیاد است. در شرق الجزایر هوا اندکی سردتر است. از مشخصه‌های آب و هوایی الجزایر، بروز طوفان‌های شن می‌باشد. در الجزایر تنها بخشی از صحرا که در مدار رأس‌السرطان قرار می‌گیرد بسیار گرم است. میزان بارندگی در طول سواحل زیاد بوده و سالانه بین ۴۰۰ تا ۶۷۰ میلی‌متر برآورد می‌شود. بیشترین بارندگی در بخش مالی شرق الجزایر وجود دارد که به ۱۰۰۰ میلی‌متر در سال می‌رسد.[۳] تاریخ[ویرایش]بربرها نخستین کسانی بودند که از روزگار خیلی دور در این سرزمین سکونت داشتند. اولین بار فنیقی‌ها در سدهٔ دوازدهم پیش از میلاد به ان کشور هجوم آوردند و مهاجر نشین‌هایی در کرانه‌های شمالی آن پدید آوردند. سپس کارتاژی‌ها به آن جا وارد شدند و نواحی شرقی آن را به تصرف درآوردند. رومی‌ها، پس از برانداختن دولت کارتاژ، به این سرزمین دست یافتند و چندی بر سواحل شمالی آفریقا و سرزمین‌های ساحلی الجزایر حکومت کردند. واندال‌ها در ۴۳۰ بعد از میلاد، دست رومی‌ها را از الجزایر کوتاه کردند. مردم الجزایر در آغاز قرن هشتم میلادی با آمدن اعراب به این سرزمین به اسلام گرویدند. از سال ۶۴۴ تا ۶۵۶، اولین قبیله بربر الجزایری که به اسلام گروید، مَغراوی‌ها بودند. به نوشته ابن خلدون، مورخ قرون وسطی، «اوزمار بن سکلب» رهبر مغراوی‌ها به درخواست عثمان بن عفان، خلیفه سوم، اسلام آورد. مغراوی‌ها نیز با بازگشت رهبر خود، دسته جمعی، به اسلام گرویدند. به سال ۶۶۵، حکومت بنی امیه اولین حمله خود به مغرب را آغاز کرد. سال ۶۸۳، فتوحات عقبة ابن نافع آغاز گردید. اگر چه مقاومت‌های بیزانسی‌ها اندکی مانع آنها شد، اما بربرها کوتاه نیامدند. از سوی دیگر، این مغراوی‌ها بودند که از ابتدای جنگ به بنی امیه پیوستند.[۴] سال ۷۰۸، بنی امیه همچنان الجزایر را در دست داشتند و دوره پیشا-اسلام در این کشور پایان یافت. همچنان که زبانهای لاتین و فینیقی از یادها می‌رفتند، الجزایر رفته رفته به اسلام پیوست. پس از فتح الجزایر توسط مسلمانان، اندک اندک زبان عربی در میان شهرنشینان جایگاه خود را به دست آورد.[۴] ابوالمهاجر دینار از سوی امویان حکومت را در سال ۷۴۷ میلادی در این منطقه دست گرفت. با روی کار آمدن فاطمیان در مصر، الجزایر در زمره خراجگزاران آنان درآمد، اما دودمانی (زیریان) که به نیابت از آنان در الجزایر و تونس حکومت می‌کرد بر ضد آنان شورید و مذهب تسنن اختیار کرد. فاطمیان نیز برای مقابله با آن سلسله قبیله بنوهلال را که بسیار پرجمعیت بود، به منطقه فرستادند تا موجبات تضعیف آن سلسله را فراهم کنند و این آغاز عربی کردن منطقه بود. پس از آن، با روی کار آمدن دو سلسله بربر مرابطان و موحدان که از غرب برخاسته بودند، منطقه مدتی روی آرامش دید، اما با سقوط موحدان، الجزایر به صحنه نبرد سه دولت جانشین زیانیان الجزایر، حفصی‌های تونس و مرینی‌های مراکش تبدیل شد. در قرون پانزدهم و شانزدهم، اسپانیا به تاخت و تازهایی در الجزایر پرداخت و در سواحل آن چند آبادی ایجاد کرد. در سال ۱۵۱۷، الجزایر توسط خیرالدین و برادرش تحت سلطه امپراتوری عثمانی درآمد.[۳] پیش از چیرگی فرانسه، کشوری مستقل بشمار می‌رفت و اداره کشور به دست یک شخص که با لقب (داعی) نامیده می‌شد اداره می‌گردید. الجزایر به سه استان بزرگ تقسیم شده بود و اداره هر استان به دست یک نفر که به‌عنوان (بای) خوانده می‌شد قرار داشت. پس از آن افکار استقلال‌طلبانه در آنجا رواج یافت و مردم الجزایر حکومتی آزاد تشکیل داده با دولت فرانسه جنگیدند. پیکار آنان به استقلال الجزایر انجامید (۱۹۶۲ م) در تاریخ الجزایر زبانهای بربری، فینیقی، لاتین، فرانسه، اسپانیایی و ترکی نوعی آمیختگی زبانشناختی را به وجود آورده که نتیجه آن یک زبان عربی الجزایری بسیار نامتجانس می‌باشد؛ زبانی که در مناطق مختلف الجزایر شکل‌های متفاوتی را به خود گرفته و تا امروز نیز به همین شکل ادامه داشته‌است. سیاست[ویرایش] عبدالعزیز بوتفلیقه، رئیس‌جمهوری سابق الجزایر. نخستین رئیس‌جمهور الجزایر نوین، احمد بن بلا بود. بن بلا پس از استقلال الجزایر از قید استعمار، از سال ۱۹۶۲ تا ۱۹۶۵ در رأس دولت جدید قرار داشت. وی از سال ۱۹۵۴ از سازمان‌دهندگان قیام مردم الجزایر علیه استعمارگران فرانسوی و از بنیان‌گذاران «جبهه آزادیبخش ملی» الجزایر بود. احمد بن بلا پس از استقلال الجزایر، ریاست دولت و حزب حاکم را برعهده گرفت. وی به‌عنوان رئیس‌جمهور الجزایر در چارچوب «کشورهای غیرمتعهد» نماینده یک سیاست «ضدامپریالیستی و سوسیالیستی» بود. در سال ۱۹۶۵ بن‌بلا با کودتای وزیر دفاع خود، هواری بومدین، سرنگون شد و تا اوایل دههٔ ۱۹۸۰ در حصر خانگی به سر برد.[۵] الجزایر بهار سیاسی خود را در سال‌های آخر دهه ۱۹۸۰ تجربه کرد. این بهار و گشایش‌های سیاسی ناشی از آن به قدرت‌گیری چشمگیر حزب اسلامی «جبهه نجات» در انتخابات سال ۱۹۹۰ منجر شد. در آن سال پس از پیروزی «جبهه نجات اسلامی» در نخستین انتخابات پارلمانی آزاد الجزایر، ارتش وارد عمل شد. ارتش رئیس‌جمهور وقت، شاذلی بن جدید را وادار کرد انتخابات را متوقف کند و از قدرت کناره بگیرد. ارتش نتیجه انتخابات را باطل و گروه‌های اسلام‌گرا را غیرقانونی اعلام کرده و با انجام کودتایی آرام، سران جبهه نجات را هم به زندان انداخت. از آن پس بخش مهمی از اسلام‌گرایانی که می‌خواستند از طریق به‌دست گرفتن قدرت الجزایر را به یک جامعه اسلامی تمام‌عیار تبدیل کنند، مخفی شدند، دست به اسلحه بردند و حدود ده سال ترور و وحشت بر الجزایر حاکم شد.[۲] مقابله مسلحانه جبهه نجات با این اقدامات ارتش به جنگی داخلی منجر شد ۲۰۰ هزار کشته برجای گذاشت. جنگ داخلی یادشده عملاً سلطه ارتش و نیروهای امنیتی را بر ساختار سیاسی الجزایر تحکیم و تقویت کرد و جامعه را اینک در زیر فشار گذاشتن حاکمان برای رفع انسدادها و گسترش فضای باز سیاسی به نوعی از احتیاط‌کاری سوق داده‌است.[۶] عبدالعزیز بوتفلیقه کسی است که سرانجام توانست در اوایل قرن بیست و یکم طرح آشتی ملی را برقرار کند و از آن پس برای چهار دوره بر کرسی ریاست‌جمهوری وسیع‌ترین کشور آفریقایی تکیه زده‌است. بوتفلیقه قانون اساسی الجزایر را تغییر داد و خود توانست در سال ۲۰۰۹ برای سومین بار به ریاست جمهوری برسد و پس از آن در سال ۲۰۱۴ برای چهارمین دوره بر مسند ریاست جمهوری تکیه زد. بوتفلیقه برای جلوگیری از روی دادن اتفاقاتی مشابه «بهار عربی» در کشور خود اجازه تأسیس ۲۳ حزب سیاسی جدید را صادر کرد و تعداد نمایندگان مجلس جدید را به ۴۶۲ نفر افزایش داد.[۷] اما او در چشم مخالفان خود تنها خدمتگزار ارتش بود که منابع اقتصادی الجزایر را در کنترل خود دارد.[۸] این کشور هنوز از آسیب‌های ناشی از جنگ داخلی دهه نود میلادی بهبود نیافته‌است. تلاش برای ایجاد تغییرات سیاسی در آن سال‌ها به دلیل دخالت نظامیان ناکام ماند و به سرخوردگی مردم انجامید. جبهه آزادیبخش ملی و حزب تجمع برای دموکراسی، دو حزب تشکیل‌دهنده دولت ائتلافی هستند. ائتلاف اسلامگراها که ائتلاف سبز نام گرفته، شامل جنبش نهضت، جنبش جامعه‌ای برای صلح و جنبش ملی اصلاح است. دولت الجزایر با درس‌گیری از انتخابات پرپیامد سال ۱۹۹۰ کوشیده‌است برخی گرایش‌های اسلامی را در ساختار قدرت ادغام کند تا هم قدرت مانور و عمل اسلام‌گرایان تندرو محدود شود و هم بخش‌های مذهبی‌تر جامعه خود را با حکومت «بیگانه» نبینند. از همین رو، به رغم حضور همچنان سنگین «جبهه آزادیبخش ملی» و شاخه کوچک انشعابی از آن (حزب تجمع برای دموکراسی) در قدرت، از سال ۱۹۹۷حزب اسلامی «جنبش جامع صلح» به دبیرکلی ابوجره سلطانی نیز تا ژانویه امسال در دولت شریک بود. از جمله با پافشاری همین حزب بود که بحث قانون ورود ممنوعیت مشروبات الکلی به جریان افتاد و مخالفت آن، تلاش برای برخی اصلاحات و گشایش‌ها در قانون خانواده را ناکام گذاشت.[۶] ساختار سیاسی الجزایر به گونه‌ای است که اگر اپوزیسیون، اعم از اسلامی و غیراسلامی در مجلس صاحب فراکسیون‌هایی قوی هم بشود، باز هم در شاکله و سلسه مراتب این ساختار تغییر اساسی به وجود نخواهد آمد، زیرا مجلس از اختیارات چندانی برخوردار نیست و رئیس‌جمهور به علاوه ارتش همچنان آشکار و نهان ارکان اصلی و اساسی حکومت را در دست خواهند داشت.[۶] در سال ۲۰۱۹ میلادی عبدالعزیز بوتفلیقه در سن ۸۲ سالگی برای پنجمین بار برای شرکت در انتخابات نام‌نویسی کرد و به دنبال آن اعتراضات گسترده مردمی علیه او شکل گرفت بیش از پانصد قاضی الجزایری نیز اعلام کردند در صورت شرکت آقای بوتفلیقه برای پنجمین بار در انتخابات نمایشی نظارت نخواهند کرد، فشارهای بین‌المللی به خصوص از اتحادیه اروپا نیز خواستار برکناری آقای بوتفلیقه شدند، سرانجام عبدالعزیز بوتفلیقه پس از بیست سال اعلام کرد در انتخابات شرکت نمی‌کند و از قدرت کنار خواهد رفت. وی در ۲ آوریل سال ۲۰۱۹ رسماً از قدرت کناره‌گیری کرد. عبدالعزیز بوتفلیقه طی پیامی که ۳ آوریل ۲۰۱۹ خطاب به مردم الجزایر فرستاد و در آن کارهایی که در دوران ریاست جمهوریش انجام داده را خاطرنشان ساخت. وی از همه مردم اعم از زنان و مردان الجزایری خواستار گذشت و عفو و بخشش بخاطر قصورش در حق مردم الجزایر شد.[۹] اما روز جمعه ۵ آوریل ۲۰۱۹ هزاران جزایری با تجمع در شهر الجزیره پایتخت این کشور، اعلام کردند تا سرنگونی کامل همه چهره‌های سیاسی وابسته به حکومت عبدالعزیز بوتفلیقه و منع آنها از تصدی هرگونه مسئولیت یا سمتی در کابیته دولت موقت انتقالی به تظاهرات خود ادامه خواهند داد. این سه شخصیت سیاسی قدیمی که معترضان با تعیین آنان مخالفند، عبارتند از عبدالقادر بن صالح، الطیب بلعیز و نورالدین بدوی.[۱۰] اقتصاد[ویرایش]بیشتر مردم الجزایر از دیرباز به کشاورزی می‌پرداختند. در بخش شمالی گندم و جو کاشته می‌شود. غرس میوه و مرکبات در الجزایر روزبه‌روز رونق می‌گیرد. در این کشور صنایع دستی مانند سوزن‌دوزی عربی، فرش الجزایری، چرم‌سازی، منبت‌کاری، کاشی‌سازی و غیره رواج دارد. در این کشور سالیانه ۳۰٬۰۰۰٬۰۰۰ تن آهن ۷۰۵٬۰۰۰ تن فسفات ۲۸۰٬۰۰۰ تن زغال بدست می‌آید و ذخایر گسترده نفت نیز در جنوب و جنوب شرقی آن وجود دارد. با وجود آنکه الجزایر دارای معادن بسیار و درآمد بالای حاصل از فروش گاز طبیعی است، اما فاصله میان قشرهای غنی و فقیر در این کشور زیاد است. وضع صنعت و کشاورزی در الجزایر کساد است و ظرفیت چندانی برای اشتغال ایجاد نمی‌کنند. گردشگری هم بر خلاف تونس و مصر، به دلیل محافظه‌کاری و انزوای سیاسی و فرهنگی رژیم هواری بومدین در سال‌های پس از انقلاب ۱۹۶۲، به حاشیه رانده شده و نقشی در اقتصاد این کشور بازی نمی‌کند. بیکاری به ویژه در میان جوانان گسترده است و مشکل گرانی و کمبود مسکن هم از قشر متوسط تا قشرها ضعیف‌تر را تحت فشار قرار داده است.[۶] تقسیمات کشوری[ویرایش]کشور الجزائر دارای ۴۸ استان (به عربی: ولایة) است که همه استان‌های آن با شهرهای مراکز استان خود هم‌نامند. استان‌های الجزائر به نوبه خود به ۵۵۳ شهرستان (عربی: دایرة) و این شهرستان‌ها به ۱۵۴۱ بخش (عربی: بلدیة) تقسیم می‌شوند. نام استان‌های الجزائر به قرار زیر است:
مردم و مذهب[ویرایش]جمعیت الجزایر حدود ۴۲ میلیون نفر (۲۰۱۸) است که ۸۵۰۰۰۰ نفر فرانسوی و اسپانیایی و ایتالیایی مالتی و بقیه الجزایری هستند ۹۹/۸٪ جمعیت آن عرب-بربر بوده و کمتر از ۱٪ اروپایی هستند. زبان رسمی کشور عربی است و زبانهای فرانسوی و بربری نیز کاربرد دارند. ۹۹/۱٪ جمعیت مسلمانان سنی مذهب و۰/۶اباضیه هستند و بقیه عمدتاً مسیحی و کلیمی. که دین اسلام (مذهب اهل سنت مالکی) دارند و عرب زبانند و به زبان محلی آمازیغی و فرانسه نیز صحبت می‌کنند، هر سال نزدیک به ۳۰۰٬۰۰۰ نفر بر آنها اضافه می‌شود. اکثر الجزایری‌ها بربر یا عرب هستند، البته عرب بودن یا بربر بودن براساس ملاحظات زبانی یا هویتی مشخص می‌شود. اما منشأ و ریشه کلیه الجزایری‌ها اقوام بربر می‌باشند. مسئله عرب ـ بربر بیشتر جنبه هویتی دارد و نوعی تمایز نژادی، یا قومی به حساب نمی‌آید. اقوام بربر به چندین گروه قومی تقسیم می‌شوند: قبائلی در مناطق کوهستانی شمالی ـ مرکزی، شاویه در کوهستان‌های اطلس شرقی، مزابیه در دره مزاب و طوارق در جنوب. تعداد اندکی آفریقایی سیاهپوست نیز در الجزایر زندگی می‌کنند. الجزایری‌های ترک تبار حدود ۵٪ جمعیت این کشور را تشکیل می‌دهند که عمدتاً در شهرهای بزرگ زندگی می‌کنند.[۳] اکثر الجزایری‌ها به عربی الجزایری تکلم می‌کنند. حدود ۸۳٪ جمعیت به زبان عربی با گویش «درجه» صحبت می‌کنند. با این حال، در رسانه‌ها و در مناسبت‌های رسمی به زبان عربی استاندارد تکلم می‌شود. بربرها که تقریباً ۴۵٪ جمعیت را تشکیل می‌دهند عمدتاً به یکی از گویش‌های تامازیغت صحبت می‌کنند. اما اکثریت آنان عربی الجزایری نیز می‌دانند. عربی تنها زبان رسمی کشور است، اما اخیراً تامازیغت نیز به عنوان یک زبان ملی به رسمیت شناخته شده‌است. مسئله زبان به لحاظ سیاسی به ویژه برای اقلیت بربر حائز اهمیت و حساسیت می‌باشد. سیاست زبانی دولت مبنی بر عربی‌سازی عمدتاً در واکنش به ۱۳۰ سال استعمار فرانسه و نیز رواج ناسونالیسم عربی بوده‌است. فرانسه همچنان به عنوان زبان خارجی آموخته می‌شود و در مدارس به کودکان آموزش داده می‌شود. همچنین، در رسانه‌ها و بخش‌های بازرگانی از زبان فرانسه استفاده می‌شود.[۱۱] جستارهای وابسته[ویرایش]منابع[ویرایش]
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Coordinates: 28°N 2°E / 28°N 2°E
Algeria (/ælˈdʒɪəriə/ ( The capital and most populous city is Algiers, located in the far north of the country on the Mediterranean coast. With an area of 2,381,741 square kilometres (919,595 sq mi), Algeria is the tenth-largest country in the world, and the largest in the Arab world and Africa.[11] With an estimated population of over 42 million, it is among the ten most populous states in Africa. Algeria is bordered to the northeast by Tunisia, to the east by Libya, to the west by Morocco, to the southwest by the Western Saharan territory, Mauritania, and Mali, to the southeast by Niger, and to the north by the Mediterranean Sea. It is a semi-presidential republic consisting of 48 provinces and 1,541 communes (counties). Pre-1962 Algeria has known many empires and dynasties, including ancient Numidians, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Byzantines, Umayyads, Abbasids, Idrisid, Aghlabid, Rustamid, Fatimids, Zirid, Hammadids, Almoravids, Almohads, Zayyanids, Spaniards, Ottomans and, finally, the French colonial empire. Algeria is a regional and middle power. It has the highest human development index of all non-island African countries and one of the largest economies on the continent, based largely on energy exports. Algeria has the 16th largest oil reserves in the world and the second largest in Africa, while it has the ninth largest reserves of natural gas. Sonatrach, the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa, supplying large amounts of natural gas to Europe. Algeria has one of the largest militaries in Africa and the largest defence budget. It is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, OPEC, the United Nations, and the Arab Maghreb Union, of which it is a founding member. ContentsEtymologyThe country's name derives from the city of Algiers. The city's name in turn derives from the Arabic al-Jazāʾir (الجزائر, "The Islands"),[12] a truncated form of the older Jazāʾir Banī Mazghanna (جزائر بني مزغنة, "Islands of the Mazghanna Tribe"),[13][14][page needed][15][page needed] employed by medieval geographers such as al-Idrisi. History
Prehistory and ancient history
 Roman ruins at Djémila In the region of Ain Hanech (Saïda Province), early remnants (200,000 BC) of hominid occupation in North Africa were found. Neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the Levalloisian and Mousterian styles (43,000 BC) similar to those in the Levant.[16][17] Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of Middle Paleolithic Flake tool techniques.[18] Tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called Aterian (after the archeological site of Bir el Ater, south of Tebessa). The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called Iberomaurusian (located mainly in the Oran region). This industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the Maghreb between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic civilization (animal domestication and agriculture) developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BC[19] or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC. This life, richly depicted in the Tassili n'Ajjer paintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The mixture of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a distinct native population that came to be called Berbers, who are the indigenous peoples of northern Africa.[20]  From their principal center of power at Carthage, the Carthaginians expanded and established small settlements along the North African coast; by 600 BC, a Phoenician presence existed at Tipasa, east of Cherchell, Hippo Regius (modern Annaba) and Rusicade (modern Skikda). These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages. As Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilization was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, and political organization supported several states. Trade links between Carthage and the Berbers in the interior grew, but territorial expansion also resulted in the enslavement or military recruitment of some Berbers and in the extraction of tribute from others. By the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the Revolt of the Mercenaries, Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War.[21] They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthage's North African territory, and they minted coins bearing the name Libyan, used in Greek to describe natives of North Africa. The Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars.[22] In 146 BC the city of Carthage was destroyed. As Carthaginian power waned, the influence of Berber leaders in the hinterland grew. By the 2nd century BC, several large but loosely administered Berber kingdoms had emerged. Two of them were established in Numidia, behind the coastal areas controlled by Carthage. West of Numidia lay Mauretania, which extended across the Moulouya River in modern-day Morocco to the Atlantic Ocean. The high point of Berber civilization, unequaled until the coming of the Almohads and Almoravids more than a millennium later, was reached during the reign of Masinissa in the 2nd century BC. After Masinissa's death in 148 BC, the Berber kingdoms were divided and reunited several times. Masinissa's line survived until 24 AD, when the remaining Berber territory was annexed to the Roman Empire. For several centuries Algeria was ruled by the Romans, who founded many colonies in the region. Like the rest of North Africa, Algeria was one of the breadbaskets of the empire, exporting cereals and other agricultural products. Saint Augustine was the bishop of Hippo Regius (modern-day Algeria), located in the Roman province of Africa. The Germanic Vandals of Geiseric moved into North Africa in 429, and by 435 controlled coastal Numidia.[23] They did not make any significant settlement on the land, as they were harassed by local tribes. In fact, by the time the Byzantines arrived Leptis Magna was abandoned and the Msellata region was occupied by the indigenous Laguatan who had been busy facilitating an Amazigh political, military and cultural revival.[23][24] Middle AgesAfter negligible resistance from the locals, Muslim Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate conquered Algeria in the early 8th century. Large numbers of the indigenous Berber people converted to Islam. Christians, Berber and Latin speakers remained in the great majority in Tunisia until the end of the 9th century and Muslims only became a vast majority some time in the 10th.[25] After the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate, numerous local dynasties emerged, including the Aghlabids, Almohads, Abdalwadid, Zirids, Rustamids, Hammadids, Almoravids and the Fatimids. The Christians left in three waves: after the initial conquest, in the 10th century and the 11th. The last were evacuated to Sicily by the Normans and the few remaining died out in the 14th century.[25] During the Middle Ages, North Africa was home to many great scholars, saints and sovereigns including Judah Ibn Quraysh, the first grammarian to mention Semitic and Berber languages, the great Sufi masters Sidi Boumediene (Abu Madyan) and Sidi El Houari, and the Emirs Abd Al Mu'min and Yāghmūrasen. It was during this time that the Fatimids or children of Fatima, daughter of Muhammad, came to the Maghreb. These "Fatimids" went on to found a long lasting dynasty stretching across the Maghreb, Hejaz and the Levant, boasting a secular inner government, as well as a powerful army and navy, made up primarily of Arabs and Levantines extending from Algeria to their capital state of Cairo. The Fatimid caliphate began to collapse when its governors the Zirids seceded. In order to punish them the Fatimids sent the Arab Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym against them. The resultant war is recounted in the epic Tāghribāt. In Al-Tāghrībāt the Amazigh Zirid Hero Khālīfā Al-Zānatī asks daily, for duels, to defeat the Hilalan hero Ābu Zayd al-Hilalī and many other Arab knights in a string of victories. The Zirids, however, were ultimately defeated ushering in an adoption of Arab customs and culture. The indigenous Amazigh tribes, however, remained largely independent, and depending on tribe, location and time controlled varying parts of the Maghreb, at times unifying it (as under the Fatimids). The Fatimid Islamic state, also known as Fatimid Caliphate made an Islamic empire that included North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Egypt, the Red Sea coast of Africa, Tihamah, Hejaz and Yemen.[26][27][28] Caliphates from Northern Africa traded with the other empires of their time, as well as forming part of a confederated support and trade network with other Islamic states during the Islamic Era. The Amazighs historically consisted of several tribes. The two main branches were the Botr and Barnès tribes, who were divided into tribes, and again into sub-tribes. Each region of the Maghreb contained several tribes (for example, Sanhadja, Houara, Zenata, Masmouda, Kutama, Awarba, and Berghwata). All these tribes made independent territorial decisions.[29] Several Amazigh dynasties emerged during the Middle Ages in the Maghreb and other nearby lands. Ibn Khaldun provides a table summarising the Amazigh dynasties of the Maghreb region, the Zirid, Banu Ifran, Maghrawa, Almoravid, Hammadid, Almohad, Merinid, Abdalwadid, Wattasid, Meknassa and Hafsid dynasties.[30]  The Berber Almohad Caliphate at its greatest extent, c. 1212 There reigned in Ifriqiya, current Tunisia, a Berber family, Zirid, somehow recognising the suzerainty of the Fatimid caliph of Cairo. Probably in 1048, the Zirid ruler or viceroy, el-Mu'izz, decided to end this suzerainty. The Fatimid state was too weak to attempt a punitive expedition; The Viceroy, el-Mu'izz, also found another means of revenge. Between the Nile and the Red Sea were living Bedouin tribes expelled from Arabia for their disruption and turbulent influence, both Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym among others, whose presence disrupted farmers in the Nile Valley since the nomads would often loot. The then Fatimid vizier devised to relinquish control of the Maghreb and obtained the agreement of his sovereign. This not only prompted the Bedouins to leave, but the Fatimid treasury even gave them a light expatriation cash allowance. Whole tribes set off with women, children, ancestors, animals and camping equipment. Some stopped on the way, especially in Cyrenaica, where they are still one of the essential elements of the settlement but most arrived in Ifriqiya by the Gabes region. The Zirid ruler tried to stop this rising tide, but with each encounter, the last under the walls of Kairouan, his troops were defeated and the Arabs remained masters of the field. The flood was still rising, and in 1057, the Arabs spread on the high plains of Constantine where they gradually choked Qalaa of Banu Hammad, as they had done in Kairouan a few decades ago. From there they gradually gained the upper Algiers and Oran plains. Some were forcibly taken by the Almohads in the second half of the 12th century. We can say that in the 13th century the Arabs were in all of North Africa, with the exception of the main mountain ranges and certain coastal regions which remained entirely Berber.[citation needed] The influx of Bedouin tribes was a major factor in the linguistic, cultural Arabization of the Maghreb and in the spread of nomadism in areas where agriculture had previously been dominant.[31] Ibn Khaldun noted that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal tribes had become completely arid desert.[32] In the early 16th century, Spain constructed fortified outposts (presidios) on or near the Algerian coast. Spain took control of few coastal towns like Mers el Kebir in 1505; Oran in 1509; and Tlemcen, Mostaganem and Ténès in 1510. In the same year, a few merchants of Algiers ceded one of the rocky islets in their harbour to Spain, which built a fort on it. The presidios in North Africa turned out to be a costly and largely ineffective military endeavour that did not guarantee access for Spain's merchant fleet.[33] Ottoman era The Zayyanid kingdom of Tlemcen in the fifteenth century and its neighbors The region of Algeria was partially ruled by Ottomans for three centuries from 1516 to 1830. In 1516 the Turkish privateer brothers Aruj and Hayreddin Barbarossa, who operated successfully under the Hafsids, moved their base of operations to Algiers. They succeeded in conquering Jijel and Algiers from the Spaniards but eventually assumed control over the city and the surrounding region, forcing the previous ruler, Abu Hamo Musa III of the Bani Ziyad dynasty, to flee. When Aruj was killed in 1518 during his invasion of Tlemcen, Hayreddin succeeded him as military commander of Algiers. The Ottoman sultan gave him the title of beylerbey and a contingent of some 2,000 janissaries. With the aid of this force, Hayreddin conquered the whole area between Constantine and Oran (although the city of Oran remained in Spanish hands until 1792).[34][35] The next beylerbey was Hayreddin's son Hasan, who assumed the position in 1544. Until 1587 the area was governed by officers who served terms with no fixed limits. Subsequently, with the institution of a regular Ottoman administration, governors with the title of pasha ruled for three-year terms. The pasha was assisted by janissaries, known in Algeria as the ojaq and led by an agha. Discontent among the ojaq rose in the mid-1600s because they were not paid regularly, and they repeatedly revolted against the pasha. As a result, the agha charged the pasha with corruption and incompetence and seized power in 1659.[34] Plague had repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. Algiers lost from 30,000 to 50,000 inhabitants to the plague in 1620–21, and suffered high fatalities in 1654–57, 1665, 1691 and 1740–42.[36] In 1671, the taifa rebelled, killed the agha, and placed one of its own in power. The new leader received the title of Dey. After 1689, the right to select the dey passed to the divan, a council of some sixty nobles. It was at first dominated by the ojaq; but by the 18th century, it had become the dey's instrument. In 1710, the dey persuaded the sultan to recognise him and his successors as regent, replacing the pasha in that role, although Algiers remained a part of the Ottoman Empire.[34] The dey was in effect a constitutional autocrat. The dey was elected for a life term, but in the 159 years (1671–1830) that the system survived, fourteen of the twenty-nine deys were assassinated. Despite usurpation, military coups and occasional mob rule, the day-to-day operation of Ottoman government was remarkably orderly. Although the regency patronised the tribal chieftains, it never had the unanimous allegiance of the countryside, where heavy taxation frequently provoked unrest. Autonomous tribal states were tolerated, and the regency's authority was seldom applied in the Kabylie.[34]  Christian slaves in Algiers, 1706 The Barbary pirates preyed on Christian and other non-Islamic shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea.[36] The pirates often took the passengers and crew on the ships and sold them or used them as slaves.[37] They also did a brisk business in ransoming some of the captives. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves.[38] They often made raids, called Razzias, on European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell at slave markets in North Africa and other parts of the Ottoman Empire.[39][40] In 1544, for example, Hayreddin Barbarossa captured the island of Ischia, taking 4,000 prisoners, and enslaved some 9,000 inhabitants of Lipari, almost the entire population.[41] In 1551, the Ottoman governor of Algiers, Turgut Reis, enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island of Gozo. Barbary pirates often attacked the Balearic Islands. The threat was so severe that residents abandoned the island of Formentera.[42] The introduction of broad-sail ships from the beginning of the 17th century allowed them to branch out into the Atlantic.[43]  Bombardment of Algiers by the Anglo-Dutch fleet, to support the ultimatum to release European slaves, August 1816 In July 1627 two pirate ships from Algiers under the command of Dutch pirate Jan Janszoon sailed as far as Iceland,[44] raiding and capturing slaves.[45][46][47] Two weeks earlier another pirate ship from Salé in Morocco had also raided in Iceland. Some of the slaves brought to Algiers were later ransomed back to Iceland, but some chose to stay in Algeria. In 1629 pirate ships from Algeria raided the Faroe Islands.[48] Barbary raids in the Mediterranean continued to attack Spanish merchant shipping, and as a result, the Spanish Navy bombarded Algiers in 1783 and 1784.[35] For the attack in 1784, the Spanish fleet was to be joined by ships from such traditional enemies of Algiers as Naples, Portugal and the Knights of Malta. Over 20,000 cannonballs were fired, much of the city and its fortifications were destroyed and most of the Algerian fleet was sunk.[49] In the 19th century, the pirates forged affiliations with Caribbean powers, paying a "licence tax" in exchange for safe harbour of their vessels.[50] Piracy on American vessels in the Mediterranean resulted in the United States initiating the First (1801–1805) and Second Barbary Wars (1815). Following those wars, Algeria was weaker and Europeans, with an Anglo-Dutch fleet commanded by the British Lord Exmouth, attacked Algiers. After a nine-hour bombardment, they obtained a treaty from the Dey that reaffirmed the conditions imposed by Captain (later Commodore) Stephen Decatur (U.S. Navy) concerning the demands of tributes. In addition, the Dey agreed to end the practice of enslaving Christians.[51] Despite being removed from Algeria in the 19th century, Spain retained a presence in Morocco. Algeria consistently opposed Spanish fortresses and control in nearby Morocco through the 20th century.[35] French colonization (1830–1962)Under the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French invaded and captured Algiers in 1830.[52][53] Historian Ben Kiernan wrote on the French conquest of Algeria: "By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830."[54] French losses from 1831–51 were 92,329 dead in the hospital and only 3,336 killed in action.[55][56] The population of Algeria, which stood at about 2.9 million in 1872, reached nearly 11 million in 1960.[57] French policy was predicated on "civilising" the country.[58] The slave trade and piracy in Algeria ceased following the French conquest.[59] The conquest of Algeria by the French took some time and resulted in considerable bloodshed. A combination of violence and disease epidemics caused the indigenous Algerian population to decline by nearly one-third from 1830 to 1872.[60][61] During this period, a small but influential French-speaking indigenous elite was formed, made up of Berbers, mostly Kabyles. As a consequence, French government favored the Kabyles.[62] About 80% of Indigenous schools were constructed for Kabyles.  Emir Abdelkader, Algerian leader insurgent against French colonial rule, 1865 From 1848 until independence, France administered the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria as an integral part and département of the nation. One of France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of European immigrants, who became known as colons and later, as Pied-Noirs. Between 1825 and 1847, 50,000 French people emigrated to Algeria.[63][page needed][64] These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of communal land from tribal peoples, and the application of modern agricultural techniques that increased the amount of arable land.[65] Many Europeans settled in Oran and Algiers, and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the population in both cities.[66]  The six historical Leaders of the FLN: Rabah Bitat, Mostefa Ben Boulaïd, Didouche Mourad, Mohammed Boudiaf, Krim Belkacem and Larbi Ben M'Hidi. During the late 19th and early 20th century; the European share was almost a fifth of the population. The French government aimed at making Algeria an assimilated part of France, and this included substantial educational investments especially after 1900. The indigenous cultural and religious resistance heavily opposed this tendency, but in contrast to the other colonised countries' path in central Asia and Caucasus, Algeria kept its individual skills and a relatively human-capital intensive agriculture.[67] Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population, which lacked political and economic status in the colonial system, gave rise to demands for greater political autonomy and eventually independence from France. In May 1945, the uprising against the occupying French forces was suppressed through what is now known as the Sétif and Guelma massacre. Tensions between the two population groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events of what was later called the Algerian War began. Historians have estimated that between 30,000 and 150,000 Harkis and their dependents were killed by the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) or by lynch mobs in Algeria.[68] The FLN used hit and run attacks in Algeria and France as part of its war, and the French conducted severe reprisals. The war led to the death of hundreds of thousands of Algerians and hundreds of thousands of injuries. Historians, like Alistair Horne and Raymond Aron, state that the actual number of Algerian Muslim war dead was far greater than the original FLN and official French estimates but was less than the 1 million deaths claimed by the Algerian government after independence. Horne estimated Algerian casualties during the span of eight years to be around 700,000.[69] The war uprooted more than 2 million Algerians.[70] The war against French rule concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence following the March 1962 Evian agreements and the July 1962 self-determination referendum. The first three decades of independence (1962–1991)The number of European Pied-Noirs who fled Algeria totaled more than 900,000 between 1962 and 1964.[71] The exodus to mainland France accelerated after the Oran massacre of 1962, in which hundreds of militants entered European sections of the city, and began attacking civilians. Algeria's first president was the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) leader Ahmed Ben Bella. Morocco's claim to portions of western Algeria led to the Sand War in 1963. Ben Bella was overthrown in 1965 by Houari Boumédiène, his former ally and defence minister. Under Ben Bella, the government had become increasingly socialist and authoritarian; Boumédienne continued this trend. But, he relied much more on the army for his support, and reduced the sole legal party to a symbolic role. He collectivised agriculture and launched a massive industrialization drive. Oil extraction facilities were nationalised. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the international 1973 oil crisis. In the 1960s and 1970s under President Houari Boumediene, Algeria pursued a program of industrialization within a state-controlled socialist economy. Boumediene's successor, Chadli Bendjedid, introduced some liberal economic reforms. He promoted a policy of Arabisation in Algerian society and public life. Teachers of Arabic, brought in from other Muslim countries, spread conventional Islamic thought in schools and sowed the seeds of a return to Orthodox Islam.[72] The Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil, leading to hardship when the price collapsed during the 1980s oil glut.[73] Economic recession caused by the crash in world oil prices resulted in Algerian social unrest during the 1980s; by the end of the decade, Bendjedid introduced a multi-party system. Political parties developed, such as the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS), a broad coalition of Muslim groups.[72] Civil War (1991–2002) and aftermath Massacres of over 50 people in 1997–1998. The Armed Islamic Group (GIA) claimed responsibility for many of them. In December 1991 the Islamic Salvation Front dominated the first of two rounds of legislative elections. Fearing the election of an Islamist government, the authorities intervened on 11 January 1992, cancelling the elections. Bendjedid resigned and a High Council of State was installed to act as the Presidency. It banned the FIS, triggering a civil insurgency between the Front's armed wing, the Armed Islamic Group, and the national armed forces, in which more than 100,000 people are thought to have died. The Islamist militants conducted a violent campaign of civilian massacres.[74] At several points in the conflict, the situation in Algeria became a point of international concern, most notably during the crisis surrounding Air France Flight 8969, a hijacking perpetrated by the Armed Islamic Group. The Armed Islamic Group declared a ceasefire in October 1997.[72] Algeria held elections in 1999, considered biased by international observers and most opposition groups[75] which were won by President Abdelaziz Bouteflika. He worked to restore political stability to the country and announced a "Civil Concord" initiative, approved in a referendum, under which many political prisoners were pardoned, and several thousand members of armed groups were granted exemption from prosecution under a limited amnesty, in force until 13 January 2000. The AIS disbanded and levels of insurgent violence fell rapidly. The Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat (GSPC), a splinter group of the Armed Islamic Group, continued a terrorist campaign against the Government.[72] Bouteflika was re-elected in the April 2004 presidential election after campaigning on a programme of national reconciliation. The programme comprised economic, institutional, political and social reform to modernise the country, raise living standards, and tackle the causes of alienation. It also included a second amnesty initiative, the Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation, which was approved in a referendum in September 2005. It offered amnesty to most guerrillas and Government security forces.[72] In November 2008, the Algerian Constitution was amended following a vote in Parliament, removing the two-term limit on Presidential incumbents. This change enabled Bouteflika to stand for re-election in the 2009 presidential elections, and he was re-elected in April 2009. During his election campaign and following his re-election, Bouteflika promised to extend the programme of national reconciliation and a $150-billion spending programme to create three million new jobs, the construction of one million new housing units, and to continue public sector and infrastructure modernisation programmes.[72] A continuing series of protests throughout the country started on 28 December 2010, inspired by similar protests across the Middle East and North Africa. On 24 February 2011, the government lifted Algeria's 19-year-old state of emergency.[76] The government enacted legislation dealing with political parties, the electoral code, and the representation of women in elected bodies.[77] In April 2011, Bouteflika promised further constitutional and political reform.[72] However, elections are routinely criticized by opposition groups as unfair and international human rights groups say that media censorship and harassment of political opponents continue. On 2 April 2019, Bouteflika resigned from the presidency.[78] Geography Since the 2011 breakup of Sudan, Algeria has been the largest country in Africa, and the Mediterranean Basin. Its southern part includes a significant portion of the Sahara. To the north, the Tell Atlas form with the Saharan Atlas, further south, two parallel sets of reliefs in approaching eastbound, and between which are inserted vast plains and highlands. Both Atlas tend to merge in eastern Algeria. The vast mountain ranges of Aures and Nememcha occupy the entire northeastern Algeria and are delineated by the Tunisian border. The highest point is Mount Tahat (3,003 m). Algeria lies mostly between latitudes 19° and 37°N (a small area is north of 37°N and south of 19°N), and longitudes 9°W and 12°E. Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a few natural harbours. The area from the coast to the Tell Atlas is fertile. South of the Tell Atlas is a steppe landscape ending with the Saharan Atlas; farther south, there is the Sahara desert.[79] The Hoggar Mountains (Arabic: جبال هقار), also known as the Hoggar, are a highland region in central Sahara, southern Algeria. They are located about 1,500 km (932 mi) south of the capital, Algiers, and just east of Tamanghasset. Algiers, Oran, Constantine, and Annaba are Algeria's main cities.[79] Climate and hydrologyIn this region, midday desert temperatures can be hot year round. After sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded. Rainfall is fairly plentiful along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging from 400 to 670 mm (15.7 to 26.4 in) annually, the amount of precipitation increasing from west to east. Precipitation is heaviest in the northern part of eastern Algeria, where it reaches as much as 1,000 mm (39.4 in) in some years. Farther inland, the rainfall is less plentiful. Algeria also has ergs, or sand dunes, between mountains. Among these, in the summer time when winds are heavy and gusty, temperatures can get up to 43.3 °C (110 °F). Fauna and floraThe varied vegetation of Algeria includes coastal, mountainous and grassy desert-like regions which all support a wide range of wildlife. Many of the creatures comprising the Algerian wildlife live in close proximity to civilization. The most commonly seen animals include the wild boars, jackals, and gazelles, although it is not uncommon to spot fennecs (foxes), and jerboas. Algeria also has a small African leopard and Saharan cheetah population, but these are seldom seen. A species of deer, the Barbary stag, inhabits the dense humid forests in the north-eastern areas. A variety of bird species makes the country an attraction for bird watchers. The forests are inhabited by boars and jackals. Barbary macaques are the sole native monkey. Snakes, monitor lizards, and numerous other reptiles can be found living among an array of rodents throughout the semi arid regions of Algeria. Many animals are now extinct, including the Barbary lions, Atlas bears and crocodiles.[80] In the north, some of the native flora includes Macchia scrub, olive trees, oaks, cedars and other conifers. The mountain regions contain large forests of evergreens (Aleppo pine, juniper, and evergreen oak) and some deciduous trees. Fig, eucalyptus, agave, and various palm trees grow in the warmer areas. The grape vine is indigenous to the coast. In the Sahara region, some oases have palm trees. Acacias with wild olives are the predominant flora in the remainder of the Sahara. Camels are used extensively; the desert also abounds with venomous and nonvenomous snakes, scorpions, and numerous insects. Politics
The head of state is the President of Algeria, who is elected for a five-year term. The president was formerly limited to two five-year terms, but a constitutional amendment passed by the Parliament on 11 November 2008 removed this limitation.[83] The next presidential election was planned to be in April 2019, but widespread protests erupted in 22 February against the president's decision to participate in the election, which resulted in President Bouteflika announcing his resignation on 3 April [2]. Algeria has universal suffrage at 18 years of age.[5] The President is the head of the army, the Council of Ministers and the High Security Council. He appoints the Prime Minister who is also the head of government.[84] The Algerian parliament is bicameral; the lower house, the People's National Assembly, has 462 members who are directly elected for five-year terms, while the upper house, the Council of the Nation, has 144 members serving six-year terms, of which 96 members are chosen by local assemblies and 48 are appointed by the president.[85] According to the constitution, no political association may be formed if it is "based on differences in religion, language, race, gender, profession, or region". In addition, political campaigns must be exempt from the aforementioned subjects.[86] Parliamentary elections were last held in May 2012, and were judged to be largely free by international monitors, though local groups alleged fraud and irregularities.[85] In the elections, the FLN won 221 seats, the military-backed National Rally for Democracy won 70, and the Islamist Green Algeria Alliance won 47.[85] Foreign relations President Abdelaziz Bouteflika and George W. Bush exchange handshakes at the Windsor Hotel Toya Resort and Spa in Tōyako Town, Abuta District, Hokkaidō in 2008. With them are Dmitriy Medvedev, left, and Yasuo Fukuda, right. Algeria is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer. Giving incentives and rewarding best performers, as well as offering funds in a faster and more flexible manner, are the two main principles underlying the European Neighbourhood Instrument (ENI) that came into force in 2014. It has a budget of €15.4 billion and provides the bulk of funding through a number of programmes. In 2009, the French government agreed to compensate victims of nuclear tests in Algeria. Defense Minister Herve Morin stated that "It's time for our country to be at peace with itself, at peace thanks to a system of compensation and reparations," when presenting the draft law on the payouts. Algerian officials and activists believe that this is a good first step and hope that this move would encourage broader reparation.[87] Tensions between Algeria and Morocco in relation to the Western Sahara have been an obstacle to tightening the Arab Maghreb Union, nominally established in 1989, but which has carried little practical weight.[88] MilitaryThe military of Algeria consists of the People's National Army (ANP), the Algerian National Navy (MRA), and the Algerian Air Force (QJJ), plus the Territorial Air Defence Forces.[5] It is the direct successor of the National Liberation Army (Armée de Libération Nationale or ALN), the armed wing of the nationalist National Liberation Front which fought French colonial occupation during the Algerian War of Independence (1954–62). Total military personnel include 147,000 active, 150,000 reserve, and 187,000 paramilitary staff (2008 estimate).[89] Service in the military is compulsory for men aged 19–30, for a total of 12 months.[90] The military expenditure was 4.3% of the gross domestic product (GDP) in 2012.[5] Algeria has the second largest military in North Africa with the largest defence budget in Africa ($10 billion).[91] Most of Algeria's weapons are imported from Russia, with whom they are a close ally.[91][92] In 2007, the Algerian Air Force signed a deal with Russia to purchase 49 MiG-29SMT and 6 MiG-29UBT at an estimated cost of $1.9 billion. Russia is also building two 636-type diesel submarines for Algeria.[93] Human rightsAlgeria has been categorized by Freedom House as "not free" since it began publishing such ratings in 1972, with the exception of 1989, 1990, and 1991, when the country was labeled "partly free."[94] In December 2016, the Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor issued a report regarding violation of media freedom in Algeria. It clarified that the Algerian government imposed restriction on freedom of the press; expression; and right to peaceful demonstration, protest and assembly as well as intensified censorship of the media and websites. Due to the fact that the journalists and activists criticize the ruling government, some media organizations' licenses are canceled.[95] Independent and autonomous trade unions face routine harassment from the government, with many leaders imprisoned and protests suppressed. In 2016 a number of unions, many of which were involved in the 2010–2012 Algerian Protests, have been deregistered by the government.[96][97][98] Homosexuality is illegal in Algeria.[99] Public homosexual behavior is punishable by up to two years in prison.[100] Administrative divisionsAlgeria is divided into 58 provinces (wilayas), 553 districts (daïras) and 1,541 municipalities (baladiyahs). Each province, district, and municipality is named after its seat, which is usually the largest city. The administrative divisions have changed several times since independence. When introducing new provinces, the numbers of old provinces are kept, hence the non-alphabetical order. With their official numbers, currently (since 1983) they are[5]
EconomyAlgeria is classified as an upper middle income country by the World Bank.[101] Algeria's currency is the dinar (DZD). The economy remains dominated by the state, a legacy of the country's socialist post-independence development model. In recent years, the Algerian government has halted the privatization of state-owned industries and imposed restrictions on imports and foreign involvement in its economy.[5] These restrictions are just starting to be lifted off recently although questions about Algeria's slowly-diversifying economy remain. Algeria has struggled to develop industries outside hydrocarbons in part because of high costs and an inert state bureaucracy. The government's efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector have done little to reduce high youth unemployment rates or to address housing shortages.[5] The country is facing a number of short-term and medium-term problems, including the need to diversify the economy, strengthen political, economic and financial reforms, improve the business climate and reduce inequalities amongst regions.[77] A wave of economic protests in February and March 2011 prompted the Algerian government to offer more than $23 billion in public grants and retroactive salary and benefit increases. Public spending has increased by 27% annually during the past 5 years. The 2010–14 public-investment programme will cost US$286 billion, 40% of which will go to human development.[77] The Algerian economy grew by 2.6% in 2011, driven by public spending, in particular in the construction and public-works sector, and by growing internal demand. If hydrocarbons are excluded, growth has been estimated at 4.8%. Growth of 3% is expected in 2012, rising to 4.2% in 2013. The rate of inflation was 4% and the budget deficit 3% of GDP. The current-account surplus is estimated at 9.3% of GDP and at the end of December 2011, official reserves were put at US$182 billion.[77] Inflation, the lowest in the region, has remained stable at 4% on average between 2003 and 2007.[102]  Algeria, trends in the Human Development Index 1970–2010 In 2011 Algeria announced a budgetary surplus of $26.9 billion, 62% increase in comparison to 2010 surplus. In general, the country exported $73 billion worth of commodities while it imported $46 billion.[103] Thanks to strong hydrocarbon revenues, Algeria has a cushion of $173 billion in foreign currency reserves and a large hydrocarbon stabilization fund. In addition, Algeria's external debt is extremely low at about 2% of GDP.[5] The economy remains very dependent on hydrocarbon wealth, and, despite high foreign exchange reserves (US$178 billion, equivalent to three years of imports), current expenditure growth makes Algeria's budget more vulnerable to the risk of prolonged lower hydrocarbon revenues.[104] In 2011, the agricultural sector and services recorded growth of 10% and 5.3%, respectively.[77] About 14% of the labor force are employed in the agricultural sector.[5] Fiscal policy in 2011 remained expansionist and made it possible to maintain the pace of public investment and to contain the strong demand for jobs and housing.[77] Algeria has not joined the WTO, despite several years of negotiations.[105] In March 2006, Russia agreed to erase $4.74 billion of Algeria's Soviet-era debt[106] during a visit by Russian President Vladimir Putin to the country, the first by a Russian leader in half a century. In return, Algerian President Abdelaziz Bouteflika agreed to buy $7.5 billion worth of combat planes, air-defence systems and other arms from Russia, according to the head of Russia's state arms exporter Rosoboronexport.[107][108] Dubai-based conglomerate Emarat Dzayer Group said it had signed a joint venture agreement to develop a $1.6 billion steel factory in Algeria.[109] HydrocarbonsAlgeria, whose economy is reliant on petroleum, has been an OPEC member since 1969. Its crude oil production stands at around 1.1 million barrels/day, but it is also a major gas producer and exporter, with important links to Europe.[110] Hydrocarbons have long been the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the 10th-largest reserves of natural gas in the world and is the sixth-largest gas exporter. The U.S. Energy Information Administration reported that in 2005, Algeria had 160 trillion cubic feet (4.5×1012 m3) of proven natural-gas reserves.[111] It also ranks 16th in oil reserves.[5] Non-hydrocarbon growth for 2011 was projected at 5%. To cope with social demands, the authorities raised expenditure, especially on basic food support, employment creation, support for SMEs, and higher salaries. High hydrocarbon prices have improved the current account and the already large international reserves position.[104] Income from oil and gas rose in 2011 as a result of continuing high oil prices, though the trend in production volume is downwards.[77] Production from the oil and gas sector in terms of volume, continues to decline, dropping from 43.2 million tonnes to 32 million tonnes between 2007 and 2011. Nevertheless, the sector accounted for 98% of the total volume of exports in 2011, against 48% in 1962,[112] and 70% of budgetary receipts, or US$71.4 billion.[77] The Algerian national oil company is Sonatrach, which plays a key role in all aspects of the oil and natural gas sectors in Algeria. All foreign operators must work in partnership with Sonatrach, which usually has majority ownership in production-sharing agreements.[113] Research and alternative energy sourcesAlgeria has invested an estimated 100 billion dinars towards developing research facilities and paying researchers. This development program is meant to advance alternative energy production, especially solar and wind power.[114] Algeria is estimated to have the largest solar energy potential in the Mediterranean, so the government has funded the creation of a solar science park in Hassi R'Mel. Currently, Algeria has 20,000 research professors at various universities and over 780 research labs, with state-set goals to expand to 1,000. Besides solar energy, areas of research in Algeria include space and satellite telecommunications, nuclear power and medical research. Labour marketDespite a decline in total unemployment, youth and women unemployment is high.[104] Unemployment particularly affects the young, with a jobless rate of 21.5% among the 15–24 age group.[77] The overall rate of unemployment was 10% in 2011, but remained higher among young people, with a rate of 21.5% for those aged between 15 and 24. The government strengthened in 2011 the job programmes introduced in 1988, in particular in the framework of the programme to aid those seeking work (Dispositif d'Aide à l'Insertion Professionnelle).[77] TourismThe development of the tourism sector in Algeria had previously been hampered by a lack of facilities, but since 2004 a broad tourism development strategy has been implemented resulting in many hotels of a high modern standard being built. There are several UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Algeria[115] including Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad, the first capital of the Hammadid empire; Tipasa, a Phoenician and later Roman town; and Djémila and Timgad, both Roman ruins; M'Zab Valley, a limestone valley containing a large urbanized oasis; and the Casbah of Algiers, an important citadel. The only natural World Heritage Site is the Tassili n'Ajjer, a mountain range. Transport The main highway connecting the Moroccan to the Tunisian border was a part of the Cairo–Dakar Highway project The Algerian road network is the densest in Africa; its length is estimated at 180,000 km (110,000 mi) of highways, with more than 3,756 structures and a paving rate of 85%. This network will be complemented by the East-West Highway, a major infrastructure project currently under construction. It is a 3-way, 1,216-kilometre-long (756 mi) highway, linking Annaba in the extreme east to the Tlemcen in the far west. Algeria is also crossed by the Trans-Sahara Highway, which is now completely paved. This road is supported by the Algerian government to increase trade between the six countries crossed: Algeria, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, and Tunisia. Demographics
In January 2016 Algeria's population was an estimated 40.4 million, who are mainly Arab-Berber ethnically.[5][118][119] At the outset of the 20th century, its population was approximately four million.[120] About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the inhabitants of the Sahara desert are mainly concentrated in oases, although some 1.5 million remain nomadic or partly nomadic. 28.1% of Algerians are under the age of 15.[5] Women make up 70% of the country's lawyers and 60% of its judges and also dominate the field of medicine. Increasingly, women are contributing more to household income than men. 60% of university students are women, according to university researchers.[121] Between 90,000 and 165,000 Sahrawis from Western Sahara live in the Sahrawi refugee camps,[122][123] in the western Algerian Sahara desert.[124] There are also more than 4,000 Palestinian refugees, who are well integrated and have not asked for assistance from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).[122][123] In 2009, 35,000 Chinese migrant workers lived in Algeria.[125] The largest concentration of Algerian migrants outside Algeria is in France, which has reportedly over 1.7 million Algerians of up to the second generation.[126] Ethnic groupsIndigenous Berbers as well as Phoenicians, Romans, Byzantine Greeks, Arabs, Turks, various Sub-Saharan Africans, and French have contributed to the history of Algeria.[127] Descendants of Andalusian refugees are also present in the population of Algiers and other cities.[128] Moreover, Spanish was spoken by these Aragonese and Castillian Morisco descendants deep into the 18th century, and even Catalan was spoken at the same time by Catalan Morisco descendants in the small town of Grish El-Oued.[129] Despite the dominance of the Berber culture and ethnicity in Algeria, the majority of Algerians identify with an Arabic-based identity, especially after the Arab nationalism rising in the 20th century.[130][131] Berbers and Berber-speaking Algerians are divided into many groups with varying languages. The largest of these are the Kabyles, who live in the Kabylie region east of Algiers, the Chaoui of Northeast Algeria, the Tuaregs in the southern desert and the Shenwa people of North Algeria.[132][page needed] During the colonial period, there was a large (10% in 1960)[133] European population who became known as Pied-Noirs. They were primarily of French, Spanish and Italian origin. Almost all of this population left during the war of independence or immediately after its end.[134] Languages Modern Standard Arabic and Berber are the official languages.[135] Algerian Arabic (Darja) is the language used by the majority of the population. Colloquial Algerian Arabic is heavily infused with borrowings from French and Berber. Berber has been recognized as a "national language" by the constitutional amendment of 8 May 2002.[136] Kabyle, the predominant Berber language, is taught and is partially co-official (with a few restrictions) in parts of Kabylie. In February 2016, the Algerian constitution passed a resolution that would make Berber an official language alongside Arabic. Although French has no official status, Algeria is the second-largest Francophone country in the world in terms of speakers,[137] and French is widely used in government, media (newspapers, radio, local television), and both the education system (from primary school onwards) and academia due to Algeria's colonial history. It can be regarded as a lingua franca of Algeria. In 2008, 11.2 million Algerians could read and write in French.[138] An Abassa Institute study in April 2000 found that 60% of households could speak and understand French or 18 million in a population of 30 million then. After an earlier period during which the Algerian government tried to phase out French (which is why it has no official status), in recent decades the government has backtracked and reinforced the study of French and television programs have reinforced use of the language. Algeria emerged as a bilingual state after 1962.[139] Colloquial Algerian Arabic is spoken by about 72% of the population and Berber by 27–30%.[140] ReligionIslam is the predominant religion in Algeria, with its adherents, mostly Sunnis, accounting for 99% of the population according to a 2012 CIA World Factbook estimate,[5] and 97.9% according to Pew Research in 2010.[141] There are about 150,000 Ibadis in the M'zab Valley in the region of Ghardaia. Algeria has given the Muslim world a number of prominent thinkers, including Emir Abdelkader, Abdelhamid Ben Badis, Mouloud Kacem Naît Belkacem, Malek Bennabi and Mohamed Arkoun. CitiesBelow is a list of the most important Algerian cities:
Culture Modern Algerian literature, split between Arabic, Tamazight and French, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. Famous novelists of the 20th century include Mohammed Dib, Albert Camus, Kateb Yacine and Ahlam Mosteghanemi while Assia Djebar is widely translated. Among the important novelists of the 1980s were Rachid Mimouni, later vice-president of Amnesty International, and Tahar Djaout, murdered by an Islamist group in 1993 for his secularist views.[143] Malek Bennabi and Frantz Fanon are noted for their thoughts on decolonization; Augustine of Hippo was born in Tagaste (modern-day Souk Ahras); and Ibn Khaldun, though born in Tunis, wrote the Muqaddima while staying in Algeria. The works of the Sanusi family in pre-colonial times, and of Emir Abdelkader and Sheikh Ben Badis in colonial times, are widely noted. The Latin author Apuleius was born in Madaurus (Mdaourouch), in what later became Algeria. Contemporary Algerian cinema is various in terms of genre, exploring a wider range of themes and issues. There has been a transition from cinema which focused on the war of independence to films more concerned with the everyday lives of Algerians.[144] MediaArtAlgerian painters, like Mohamed Racim or Baya, attempted to revive the prestigious Algerian past prior to French colonization, at the same time that they have contributed to the preservation of the authentic values of Algeria. In this line, Mohamed Temam, Abdelkhader Houamel have also returned through this art, scenes from the history of the country, the habits and customs of the past and the country life. Other new artistic currents including the one of M'hamed Issiakhem, Mohammed Khadda and Bachir Yelles, appeared on the scene of Algerian painting, abandoning figurative classical painting to find new pictorial ways, in order to adapt Algerian paintings to the new realities of the country through its struggle and its aspirations. Mohammed Khadda[145] and M'hamed Issiakhem have been notable in recent years.[145] Literature The historic roots of Algerian literature go back to the Numidian and Roman African era, when Apuleius wrote The Golden Ass, the only Latin novel to survive in its entirety. This period had also known Augustine of Hippo, Nonius Marcellus and Martianus Capella, among many others. The Middle Ages have known many Arabic writers who revolutionized the Arab world literature, with authors like Ahmad al-Buni, Ibn Manzur and Ibn Khaldoun, who wrote the Muqaddimah while staying in Algeria, and many others. Albert Camus was an Algerian-born French Pied-Noir author. In 1957 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature. Today Algeria contains, in its literary landscape, big names having not only marked the Algerian literature, but also the universal literary heritage in Arabic and French. As a first step, Algerian literature was marked by works whose main concern was the assertion of the Algerian national entity, there is the publication of novels as the Algerian trilogy of Mohammed Dib, or even Nedjma of Kateb Yacine novel which is often regarded as a monumental and major work. Other known writers will contribute to the emergence of Algerian literature whom include Mouloud Feraoun, Malek Bennabi, Malek Haddad, Moufdi Zakaria, Abdelhamid Ben Badis, Mohamed Laïd Al-Khalifa, Mouloud Mammeri, Frantz Fanon, and Assia Djebar. In the aftermath of the independence, several new authors emerged on the Algerian literary scene, they will attempt through their works to expose a number of social problems, among them there are Rachid Boudjedra, Rachid Mimouni, Leila Sebbar, Tahar Djaout and Tahir Wattar. Currently, a part of Algerian writers tends to be defined in a literature of shocking expression, due to the terrorism that occurred during the 1990s, the other party is defined in a different style of literature who staged an individualistic conception of the human adventure. Among the most noted recent works, there is the writer, the swallows of Kabul and the attack of Yasmina Khadra, the oath of barbarians of Boualem Sansal, memory of the flesh of Ahlam Mosteghanemi and the last novel by Assia Djebar nowhere in my father's House. MusicChaâbi music is a typically Algerian musical genre characterized by specific rhythms and of Qacidate (popular poems) in Arabic dialect. The undisputed master of this music is El Hadj M'Hamed El Anka. The Constantinois Malouf style is saved by musician from whom Mohamed Tahar Fergani is a performer. Folk music styles include Bedouin music, characterized by the poetic songs based on long kacida (poems); Kabyle music, based on a rich repertoire that is poetry and old tales passed through generations; Shawiya music, a folklore from diverse areas of the Aurès Mountains. Rahaba music style is unique to the Aures. Souad Massi is a rising Algerian folk singer. Other Algerian singers of the diaspora include Manel Filali in Germany and Kenza Farah in France. Tergui music is sung in Tuareg languages generally, Tinariwen had a worldwide success. Finally, the staïfi music is born in Sétif and remains a unique style of its kind. Modern music is available in several facets, Raï music is a style typical of western Algeria. Rap, a relatively recent style in Algeria, is experiencing significant growth. Cinema Italian-Algerian film The Battle of Algiers (1966) won the Golden Lion at the 27th Venice International Film Festival.[147] The Algerian state's interest in film-industry activities can be seen in the annual budget of DZD 200 million (EUR 1.8) allocated to production, specific measures and an ambitious programme plan implemented by the Ministry of Culture in order to promote national production, renovate the cinema stock and remedy the weak links in distribution and exploitation. The financial support provided by the state, through the Fund for the Development of the Arts, Techniques and the Film Industry (FDATIC) and the Algerian Agency for Cultural Influence (AARC), plays a key role in the promotion of national production. Between 2007 and 2013, FDATIC subsidised 98 films (feature films, documentaries and short films). In mid-2013, AARC had already supported a total of 78 films, including 42 feature films, 6 short films and 30 documentaries. According to the European Audiovisual Observatory's LUMIERE database, 41 Algerian films were distributed in Europe between 1996 and 2013; 21 films in this repertoire were Algerian-French co-productions. Days of Glory (2006) and Outside the Law (2010) recorded the highest number of admissions in the European Union, 3,172,612 and 474,722, respectively.[148] Algeria won the Palme d'Or for Chronicle of the Years of Fire (1975), two Oscars for Z (1969), and other awards for the Italian-Algerian movie The Battle of Algiers. SportsVarious games have existed in Algeria since antiquity. In the Aures, people played several games such as El Kherba or El khergueba (chess variant). Playing cards, checkers and chess games are part of Algerian culture. Racing (fantasia) and rifle shooting are part of cultural recreation of the Algerians.[149] The first Algerian and African gold medalist is Boughera El Ouafi in 1928 Olympics of Amsterdam in the Marathon. The second Algerian Medalist was Alain Mimoun in 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne. Several men and women were champions in athletics in the 1990s including Noureddine Morceli, Hassiba Boulmerka, Nouria Merah-Benida, and Taoufik Makhloufi, all specialized in middle-distance running.[150] Football is the most popular sport in Algeria. Several names are engraved in the history of the sport, including Lakhdar Belloumi, Rachid Mekhloufi, Hassen Lalmas, Rabah Madjer, Salah Assad and Djamel Zidane. The Algeria national football team qualified for the 1982 FIFA World Cup, 1986 FIFA World Cup, 2010 FIFA World Cup and 2014 FIFA World Cup. In addition, several football clubs have won continental and international trophies as the club ES Sétif or JS Kabylia. The Algerian Football Federation is an association of Algeria football clubs organizing national competitions and international matches of the selection of Algeria national football team.[151] Cuisine A Couscous-based salad Algerian cuisine is rich and diverse. The country was considered as the "granary of Rome". It offers a component of dishes and varied dishes, depending on the region and according to the seasons. The cuisine uses cereals as the main products, since they are always produced with abundance in the country. There is not a dish where cereals are not present. Algerian cuisine varies from one region to another, according to seasonal vegetables. It can be prepared using meat, fish and vegetables. Among the dishes known, couscous,[152] chorba, rechta, chakhchoukha, berkoukes, shakshouka, mthewem, chtitha, mderbel, dolma, brik or bourek, garantita, lham'hlou, etc. Merguez sausage is widely used in Algeria, but it differs, depending on the region and on the added spices. Cakes are marketed and can be found in cities either in Algeria, in Europe or North America. However, traditional cakes are also made at home, following the habits and customs of each family. Among these cakes, there are Tamina, Baklawa, Chrik, Garn logzelles, Griouech, Kalb el-louz, Makroud, Mbardja, Mchewek, Samsa, Tcharak, Baghrir, Khfaf, Zlabia, Aarayech, Ghroubiya and Mghergchette. Algerian pastry also contains Tunisian or French cakes. Marketed and home-made bread products include varieties such as Kessra or Khmira or Harchaya, chopsticks and so-called washers Khoubz dar or Matloue. Other traditional meals sold often as street food include mhadjeb or mahjouba, karantika, doubara, chakhchoukha, hassouna, and t'chicha. HealthIn 2002, Algeria had inadequate numbers of physicians (1.13 per 1,000 people), nurses (2.23 per 1,000 people), and dentists (0.31 per 1,000 people). Access to "improved water sources" was limited to 92% of the population in urban areas and 80% of the population in the rural areas. Some 99% of Algerians living in urban areas, but only 82% of those living in rural areas, had access to "improved sanitation". According to the World Bank, Algeria is making progress toward its goal of "reducing by half the number of people without sustainable access to improved drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015". Given Algeria's young population, policy favors preventive health care and clinics over hospitals. In keeping with this policy, the government maintains an immunization program. However, poor sanitation and unclean water still cause tuberculosis, hepatitis, measles, typhoid fever, cholera and dysentery. The poor generally receive health care free of charge.[153] Health records have been maintained in Algeria since 1882 and began adding Muslims living in the south to their vital record database in 1905 during French rule.[154] EducationSince the 1970s, in a centralized system that was designed to significantly reduce the rate of illiteracy, the Algerian government introduced a decree by which school attendance became compulsory for all children aged between 6 and 15 years who have the ability to track their learning through the 20 facilities built since independence, now the literacy rate is around 78.7%.[155]  UIS literacy rate Algeria population plus 15 1985–2015 Since 1972, Arabic is used as the language of instruction during the first nine years of schooling. From the third year, French is taught and it is also the language of instruction for science classes. The students can also learn English, Italian, Spanish and German. In 2008, new programs at the elementary appeared, therefore the compulsory schooling does not start at the age of six anymore, but at the age of five.[156] Apart from the 122 private schools, the Universities of the State are free of charge. After nine years of primary school, students can go to the high school or to an educational institution. The school offers two programs: general or technical. At the end of the third year of secondary school, students pass the exam of the baccalaureate, which allows once it is successful to pursue graduate studies in universities and institutes.[157] Education is officially compulsory for children between the ages of six and 15. In 2008, the illiteracy rate for people over 10 was 22.3%, 15.6% for men and 29.0% for women. The province with the lowest rate of illiteracy was Algiers Province at 11.6%, while the province with the highest rate was Djelfa Province at 35.5%.[155] Algeria has 26 universities and 67 institutions of higher education, which must accommodate a million Algerians and 80,000 foreign students in 2008. The University of Algiers, founded in 1879, is the oldest, it offers education in various disciplines (law, medicine, science and letters). 25 of these universities and almost all of the institutions of higher education were founded after the independence of the country. Even if some of them offer instruction in Arabic like areas of law and the economy, most of the other sectors as science and medicine continue to be provided in French and English. Among the most important universities, there are the University of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene, the University of Mentouri Constantine, and University of Oran Es-Senia. The University of Abou Bekr Belkaïd in Tlemcen and University of Batna Hadj Lakhdar occupy the 26th and 45th row in Africa.[158] See alsoNotes
References
Bibliography
External linksAlgeriaat Wikipedia's sister projects
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- الجزایر
- اتحادیه عرب
- ایالتها و قلمروهای بنیانگذاریشده در ۱۹۶۲ (میلادی)
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- کشورها و سرزمین‌های فرانسویزبان
- بنیانگذاریهای ۱۹۶۲ (میلادی) در الجزایر
