پاریس
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برای دیگر کاربردها، پاریس (ابهامزدایی) را ببینید.
پاریس (به فرانسوی: Paris)، پایتخت کشور فرانسه، مرکز و یکی از شهرستانهای ناحیه ایل-دو-فرانس است. رود سن از میان این شهر می گذرد. پاریس یکی از شهرهای پیشروی جهان در زمینههای اقتصاد، فرهنگ، هنر، سیاست، تحصیل، تفریحات، مد و علم است. پاریس را در کنار لندن، توکیو و نیویورک، ابرشهرهای جهان مینامند.[۱] پاریس بزرگترین شهر اقتصادی اروپا و پنجمین شهر اقتصادی جهان از نظر سطح تولید ناخالص داخلی است. این شهر به تنهایی نزدیک به ۵۳۳ میلیارد یورو یعنی نزدیک به ۲۵٪ تولید ناخالص داخلی فرانسه را در دست دارد.[۲] پاریسیها با دارا بودن ۴۲٬۷۰۰ دلار تولید ناخالص سرانه رتبه اول را از این نظر در قاره اروپا را دارا هستند.[۳] دفتر مرکزی ۳۶ شرکت از ۵۰۰ شرکت برتر جهان در پاریس قرار دارد که پس از توکیو از این نظر رتبه دوم جهان را در اختیار دارد.[۴] منطقه «لا دفانس» در شهر پاریس به عنوان مهمترین مرکز اقتصادی اروپا شناخته میشود.[۵] [۶] [۷] [۸] [۹] [۱۰] این شهر میزبان شماری از برجسته ترین سازمانهای بینالمللی همچون یونسکو، سازمان همکاری اقتصادی و توسعه و اتاق بازرگانی بینالمللی است.[۱۱][۱۲] جمعیت شهر پاریس حدود ۲٬۱۶۴٬۹۹۴ تن است.[۱۳] جمعیت منطقه شهری پاریس بالغ بر ۹٫۹۳ میلیون نفر[۱۴] بوده و جمعیت این شهر همراه حومه آن به حدود ۱۲ میلیون نفر میرسد[۱۵] و یکی از پر جمعیتترین شهرهای اروپا به شمار میرود.[۱۶] پاریس از شناخته ترین مقصد های گردشگران جهان است.[۱۷][۱۸] [۱۹] [۲۰][۲۱] سالانه حدود ۴۵ میلیون نفر توریست از پاریس دیدن میکنند.[۲۲] تعداد زیادی از آثار دیدنی، موسسات و پارکهای مشهور جهان در این شهر قرار دارند.پاریس همچنین با دارا بودن ۴۷۸٬۰۰۰ درخت سرسبزترین پایتخت اروپا میباشد. [۲۳]
لغتشناسی [ویرایش]نام پاریس برگرفته از نام گروهی از افراد قوم گل به نام پاریزیها است.[۲۴] در دوره استیلای روم نام این شهر به «لوتشیا» تغییر کرد، اما در زمان یولیانوس پادشاه روم نام شهر دوباره به پاریس تغییر یافت.[۲۵] پاریس دارای القاب متعدد زیادی است، اما مهمترین نام آن «شهر نور» (به فرانسوی: La Ville lumiere) است. این نام هم به مرکزیت این شهر در زمینه علم و تحصیلات و هم به پر نور بودن این شهر در شبها برمیگردد.[نیازمند منبع] تاریخ [ویرایش]دوران باستان [ویرایش]
حمام متعلق به دوره روم باستان
اولین آثار زندگی و تمدن دائمی در مکان فعلی پاریس و حاشیه آن به ۴۲۰۰ سال قبل از میلاد بر میگردد.[۲۶] از حدود ۲۵۰ سال قبل از میلاد مسیح پاریزیها که شاخهای از تیره سلتها بوده و عمدتا به شغل قایقرانی و تجارت اشتغال داشتند ساکن این مکان شدند. رومیها در حدود سال ۵۲ قبل از میلاد پاریس را تصرف کردند.[۲۷] در زمان رومیها نام این شهر به «لوتشیا» تغییر کرد. در این عصر عمارتهای زیادی نظیر: سالنها، کاخها، حمامها، معابد، تئاترها و یک آمفی تئاتر در پاریس ساخته شد.[۲۸] تعدادی از این آثار از جمله حمام رومی و آمفی تئاتر هنوز پا برجاست. پس از پایان سلطه رومیها در قرن سوم و چهارم میلادی پاریس به شهر کوچکی تبدیل شد، اما پس از مدت کوتاهی توانست جایگاه سابق خود را بدست آورد.[نیازمند منبع] قرون وسطی [ویرایش]
نگارهای از شهر پاریس به سال ۱۴۹۳ میلادی
در حدود سال ۵۰۰ میلادی پاریس پایتخت حکومت کلوویس یکم (امپراتور فرانکها) شد.[۲۹] پس از مرگ کلوویس امپراتوری فرانکها به چند قسمت تبدیل شد. در این دوره پاریس پایتخت یکی از این کشورها بود. در قرن نهم میلادی کشور فرانسه مورد هجوم وایکینگها قرار گرفت اما تنها بخش سمت چپ رود سن پاریس آسیب دید. در سال ۱۱۹۰، شاه فیلیپ دوم پاریس را در هر دو سمت رودخانه گسترش داد و دانشگاه پاریس، کاخ لوور و کلیسای نوتردام را گشایش کرد.[۳۰] پاریس پس از جنگهای ۱۰۰ سالهٔ فرانسه و انگلستان دوباره به عنوان پایتخت فرانسه برگزیده شد. در زمان جنگهای مذهبی فرانسه و کشتار سن بارتلمی در زمان شارل نهم پاریس به عنوان قطب مذهب کاتولیک در اروپا مطرح شد. پس از تغییر سلطنت از خانواده والوا به بوربون در فرانسه و روی کار آمدن لویی چهاردهم مرکز سیاست فرانسه به ورسای که شهری در نزدیکی پاریس بود، جابجا شد؛ اما پاریس کانون بودن خود را از نظر جمعیت، هنر، فرهنگ، علم و آموزش نگهداشت کرد. یک سده بعد، در روند انقلابهای فرانسه و فتح زندان باستیل در سال ۱۷۸۹ و تبدیل حکومت سلطنتی به سلطنت مشروطه، لویی شانزدهم پادشاه آنزمان فرانسه به درخواست انقلابیون به پاریس نقل مکان کرد و پاریس دوباره به عنوان پایتخت فرانسه برگزیده شد.[۳۱] قرن نوزدهم [ویرایش]با انقلاب صنعتی و ظهور امپراتوری دوم در فرانسه، پاریس بیشترین رشد را در تاریخ خود شاهد بود. در سال ۱۸۴۰ راهآهن پاریس به کار افتاد. در زمان ناپلئون سوم و شهرداری بارون هاوسمن تغییرات فاحشی در پاریس رخ داد. خیابانهای باریک تخریب و به خیابانهای زیبا و عریض تبدیل شدند. این تغییرات باعث زیباتر و مدرنتر شدن پاریس شد. در طول قرن نوزدهم، پاریس چهار دوره میزبان نمایشگاه جهانی بود که در آن کشورهای صنعتی آخرین پیشرفتهای علمی، صنعتی و هنری خود را به نمایش میگذاشتند.[۳۲][۳۳] درسالهای ۱۸۳۲ و ۱۸۴۹ بیماری وبا باعث مرگ و میر فراوانی در پاریس شد. تنها در سال ۱۸۳۲ در اثر شیوع این بیماری ۲۰٬۰۰۰ نفر از جمعیت ۶۵۰٬۰۰۰ نفری شهر جان خود را از دست دادند.[۳۴] همچنین در طول محاصرهٔ پاریس که باعث پایان جنگهای بین فرانسه و پروس شد، این شهر صدمات زیادی را متقبل گشت. علاوه بر این، درگیریهای مابین مردم و گروههای آزادیخواه با نیروهای دولتی طی سقوط دولت ناپلئون سوم در سال ۱۸۷۱ باعث کشته شدن بیش از ۲۰٬۰۰۰ نفر و به آتش کشیده شدن بسیاری از آثار و اماکن تاریخی در پاریس شد. این دوره در تاریخ فرانسه به «هفته خونین» مشهور است.[۳۵] در سال ۱۸۸۹ به مناسبت بزرگداشت صدمین سال انقلاب فرانسه و نمایشگاه جهانی صنعت و تکنولوژی، یک برج تمام فلزی توسط مهندس مشهور فرانسوی گوستاو ایفل در مرکز پاریس ساخته شد.[۳۶] این برج که به برج ایفل مشهور است، ابتدا به عنوان یک بنای موقت ساخته شد، اما پس از پایان نمایشگاه پابرجا ماند و نماد زیبای دیگری به پاریس افزود. برج ایفل تا سال ۱۹۳۰ بلندترین برج جهان بود.[۳۷][۳۸][۳۹][۴۰] متروی پاریس نیز همزمان با افتتاح نمایشگاه جهانی در سال ۱۹۰۰ گشایش یافت. برگزاری این نمایشگاه نماد مهمی از جایگاه برتر پاریس به عنوان قطب فناوری، توریستی و تجارت در جهان آن روز به شمار میرفت.[۴۱]
بازدید آدولف هیتلر از پاریس در طی اشغال این شهر بدست متحدین
قرن بیستم [ویرایش]جنگ جهانی اول [ویرایش]در جنگ جهانی اول شهر پاریس متحمل خسارات بسیاری شد، با این حال به خاطر اجتماعات هنری و فرهنگی خود و زندگی شبانه شهره بود. پس از پیروزی فرانسویها و بریتانیاییها در جنگ و امضای پیمان صلح، فعالیتهای فرهنگی و هنری در شهر مجدداً رونق سابق خود را بازیافت و پاریس به مکانی جذاب برای زندگی بزرگان هنر در جهان تبدیل شد. در این دوره هنرمندان بزرگی نظیر ایگور استراوینسکی نویسندهٔ روس، پابلو پیکاسو نقاش شهیر اسپانیایی، سالوادور دالی هنرمند بزرگ اسپانیایی و ارنست همینگوی نویسندهٔ مشهور آمریکایی در این شهر اقامت داشتند.[۴۲] جنگ جهانی دوم [ویرایش]پاریس تنها پنج هفته پس از ورود فرانسه به جنگ جهانی دوم در ژوئن ۱۹۴۰ توسط ارتش آلمان نازی اشغال شد، و تا اوت ۱۹۴۴ تحت اشغال نازیها بود.[۴۳] با وجود فتح پاریس بدست آلمانیها بسیاری از آثار تاریخی و فرهنگی پاریس از آسیب و صدمات در امان ماندند. از دلایل این امر میتوان عدم مواجههٔ آلمانها با مقاومت زیاد و عدم وجود اهداف استراتژیک برای بمباران در مرکز شهر بر میگردد.[۴۴][۴۵]
نمایی از منطقه اقتصادی لا دفانس نماد مدرنیته در پاریس
پس از جنگ جهانی دوم [ویرایش]دوره بعد از جنگ بزرگترین دوران توسعهٔ پاریس پس از دوران حکومت جمهوری سوم (تا ۱۹۱۴) بود. در این دوران احداث تراموای شهری و اتوبانهای مدرن در دستور کار قرار گرفت. علاوه بر آن اتوبان کمربندی عظیمی نیز به دور پاریس کشیده شد. شروع احداث منطقه اقتصادی لا دفانس نیز در این دوره رخ داد.[۴۶] رشد اقتصادی [ویرایش]در دهه هفتاد صنایع بطور کامل از درون شهر خارج شدند و موسسات از شکل سنتی خود به شکلی مدرن تبدیل گشتند. رونق اقتصادی پاریس را به یکی از گرانترین نقاط شهری دنیا تبدیل کرد و پاریسیها نیز یکی از بالاترین درآمدهای سرانه اروپا را بدست آوردند. به خاطر این رشد سریع و ایجاد فاصله طبقاتی بین پاریس و حومه آن در طول دهه ۱۹۸۰، در طی سالهای اخیر تظاهرات و درگیریهای فراوانی بین ساکنان حومه پاریس و نیروهای دولتی صورت گرفته است، که از این جمله میتوان به تظاهرات گسترده حاشیهنشینان و مهاجران در سال ۲۰۰۵ اشاره کرد.[۴۷] جغرافیا [ویرایش]پاریس در مرکز کمان رود سن قرار دارد و شامل ۲ قسمت جزیره مانند است. ایل سن لویی بخش کوچکتر و ایل دو لا سیته قسمت بزرگتر را تشکیل داده و شامل بخش قدیمی شهر است. پاریس در زمینی بسیار هموار و صاف قرار گرفتهاست.ارتفاع شهر پاریس از سطح دریادر حدود ۳۵ متر میباشد. ارتفاع پستترین نقطه پاریس از سطح دریا در حدود ۲۴ متر از سطح دریا و بلندترین نقطه آن که مونتمارتر نام دارد دارای ارتفاع ۱۳۰ متر از سطح دریا میباشد.[۴۸] مساحت هستهٔ اصلی پاریس حدود ۱۰۵ کیلومتر مربع است، اما منطقهٔ شهری پاریس و حومهٔ آن در حدود ۱۴۵۷ کیلومتر مربع مساحت دارد که ۱۳۸ برابر هستهٔ اصلی شهر است. منطقهٔ شهری پاریس و حومه شامل چند شهر و تعداد زیادی روستا بوده که با توسعهٔ پاریس در دهههای گذشته بصورت قسمتی از شهر درآمدهاند. وسعت هسته اصلی شهر پاریس به جز دو پارک وسیع به نامهای پارک بولونی و پارک ونسن در حدود ۸۷ کیلومتر مربع میباشد.[۴۹] آب و هوا [ویرایش]پاریس دارای آب و هوایی اقیانوسی است و تحت تاثیر جبهههای هوای اقیانوس اطلس شمالی قرار دارد. متوسط دمای سالیانه پاریس ۱۵ درجه سانتیگراد است. بالاترین دمای ثبت شده در پاریس برابر ۴۰٫۴ درجه سانتیگراد بوده که در سال ۱۹۴۸ ثبت شده است. پایینترین دمای ثبت شده در این شهر نیز برابر ۲۳٫۹- درجه سانتیگراد بوده که در سال ۱۸۷۹ ثبت شده بوده است.[۵۰] بارندگی در تمام طول سال در پاریس اتفاق میافتد. پاریس به خاطر بارانهای ناگهانیاش معروف است. متوسط میزان بارش سالانه در پاریس حدود ۶۴۱ میلیمتر است.[۵۱] بارش برف در این شهر به ندرت اتفاق میافتد، و در بیشتر موارد میزان بارش برف به حدی است که بیش از ۲۴ ساعت بر روی زمین باقی نمیماند.
نمایغ [ویرایش]پاریس مدرن امروزی حاصل تغییرات میانه سده ۱۹ میلادی است. برای قرنها پاریس دارای خیابانهای باریک و کم عرض بود، اما از سال ۱۸۵۲ با شروع عملیات بارون هاوسمن خیابانهای باریک به خیابانهای عریض تبدیل شدند. از این دوران تا به امروز ارتفاع ساختمانهای هر خیابان در پاریس با توجه به عرض آن خیابان انتخاب شدهاست. بسیاری از ساختمانهای قرن نوزدهم کماکان در پاریس پابرجا هستند و استفاده میشوند. معماری [ویرایش]
منطقه اقتصادی تجاری لا دفانس
نمایی از منطقه اقتصادی تجاری لا دفانس از ورای پارک بولوین
با توجه به وجود قوانین بسیار سخت برای ساخت و ساز و عدم اجازه برای ساخت ساختمانهای بلند بسیاری از موسسات نظیر موسسات تجاری، دانشگاهها، موسسات تحقیقاتی و وزارت خانهها به حاشیه شهر پاریس و بویژه منطقه لا دفانس انتقال یافتهاند. این قوانین باعث شدهاست که شهر پاریس چهرهای تاریخی به خود گرفته و به قول اروپاییها به موزهفیکاسیون (muséification) یا موزه بصری تبدیل شود.[۵۳] [۵۴] بسیاری از ساختمانهای اداری پاریس که هنوز در محدوده مرکزی شهر قرار دارند قصد انتقال دفاتر خود را به حومه شهر و بویژه به منطقه لا دفانس دارند. منطقه اقتصادی دفنس میزبان دفاتر و مراکز مهم اداری، تجاری، اقتصادی و فرهنگی فرانسه و اروپا است. منطقه اقتصادی لا دفانس، دفاتر شرکتهای بزرگ تولید مواد غذایی درRungis، دانشگاههای مهمی چون دانشگاه پلی تکنیک پاریس، HEC، ESSEC، INSEAD و...، تعدادی از معروفترین آزمایشگاههای تحقیقاتی جهان (در منطقه سالکی و ایوری)، مجموعههای عظیم ورزشی نظیر استاد دو فرانس در سن دنی و بعضی از وزراتخانهها مانند وزارت حمل و نقل فرانسه در حومه پاریس قرار گرفته اند. طبق اعلام مسئولین آرشیو ملی فرانسه نیز تا سال ۲۰۱۰ به حومه پاریس منتقل میشود. نیاز به پاریسی بزرگتر از سوی دولتمردان فرانسوی نیز درک شده به طوری که این موضوع از سال ۲۰۰۷ در دستور کار قرار گرفته و نتیجه نهایی آن نیز در انتخابات بهار ۲۰۰۸ شورای شهر پاریس مشخص خواهد شد. خیابانها، میدانها و محلات معروف پاریس [ویرایش]بخش مرکزی شهر [ویرایش]
در طول انقلاب اول فرانسه و در دوره معروف به ترور، دستگاه گیوتین در این میدان نصب شده بود. سر بسیاری از مشاهیر آن دوره فرانسه نظیر لویی شانزدهم، ماری آنتوانت، ماکسیمیلیان ربسپیر و آنتوان لاوازیه در این میدان به زیر گیوتین رفتهاست.[۵۹] در این میدان و در حاشیه خیابان رویال ساختمان وزارت بحریه فرانسه، هتل کریلیون و سفارت ایالات متحده آمریکا قرار دارد. در سوی دیگر میدان، باغ تویلری که به موزه لوور منتهی میشود، قرار گرفته است. یکی از اضلاع میدان کنکورد به میدان دیگری به نام وندوم متصل است در این میدان نیز هتلهای مجلل ریتز و وندوم و تعداد بسیار زیادی جواهر فروشی مجلل و معروف قرار دارد. علاوه بر این در این ۲ میدان سالنهای مد بسیاری از معروفترین طراحان لباس دنیا و شرکتهای مشهور مُد قرار دارند. در مرکز این میدان ستون تاریخی ابلیسک قرار دارد. این ستون از سوی والی مصر، محمدعلی پاشا در زمان پادشاهی شارل دهم، به فرانسه هدیه شده است. قدمت این ستون ۳۳۰۰ سال بوده و به دوره رامسس دوم بازگشته و قدیمیترین اثر موجود در فضای شهری پاریس است.[۶۰] [۵۶]
در سال ۱۹۷۱ این بازار تخریب و به مکان جدیدی تحت عنوان «Rungis» در حومه پاریس منتقل شد. این مرکز هم اکنون بزرگترین مرکز ارائه محصولات پروتئینی در جهان است.[۶۳][۶۴][۶۵]
سکره کر بر فراز مونتمارتر
حاشیه شهر [ویرایش]
کلیسای سلطنتی سندُنی که مقبره بسیاری از پادشاهان فرانسه و خانوادههای سلطنتی این کشور است.
عمارتها و بناهای مشهور و دیدنی پاریس [ویرایش]معروفترین آثار شهر پاریس کلیسای قرن دوازدهمی نوتردام واقع در ایل دو لا سیته، برج ایفل و تاق نصرت پیروزی (تریومف) میباشند. برج ایفل ابتدا به صورت موقت جهت نمایشگاه جهانی سال ۱۸۸۹ توسط گوستاو ایفل بنا شد، اما با حفظ آن پس از این تاریخ امروزه در نزد جهانیان به عنوان نماد شهر پاریس شناخته میشود.[۸۱][۸۲] عمده بناهای مشهور پاریس در محدوده میدان شارل دوگل (میدان دلتوال سابق) واقع شدهاند. از جمله موزه لوور، باغ تویلری، خیابان شانز الیزه، تاق نصرت پیروزی (تریومف)، گراند پله، پتیت پله، میدان کنکورد و بسیاری آثار دیگر. بخش دیگری از این آثار که شامل بناهای مدرن و امروزی شهر پاریس میشوند در محدوده منطقه لا دفانس قرار گرفتهاند. علاوه براین ۲ منطقه آثار متعدد فراوانی نیز در سرتاسر شهر پاریس وجود دارند. موزه انولید که مقبره بسیاری از سربازان و افتخارآفرینان فرانسه از جمله ناپلئون است، قلعه کونسیرژری که محل نگهداری لویی شانزدهم، ماری آنتوانت و خانواده سلطنتی فرانسه قبل از اعدام در جریان انقلاب بود ، ۲ مجسمه ملقب به آزادی واقع در ایل دوسیژن و کاخ لوکزانبورگ که نمونه بزرگ آنها در سال ۱۸۸۶ از سوی ملت فرانسه به ملت آمریکا هدیه داده شد، بخش دیگری از این آثار دیدنی هستند. اپرا گارنیه که درزمان امپراتوری دوم ساخته شده نیز از دیگر بناهای دیدنی شهر پاریس محسوب میشود. موزه لوور که امروزه یکی از مشهورترین موزههای جهان است نیز در بنای کاخ سابق لوور قرار دارد. دانشگاه سوربن نیز که بخش اصلی دانشگاه پاریس را تشکیل میدهد نیز در محله لاتین قرار گرفتهاست. علاوه بر کلیسای نوتردام کلیساهای مشهور و زیبای دیگری نیز از جمله کلیسای سن شاپل، کلیسای مادلین و کلیسای سکره کر نیز در این شهر قرار گرفتهاند. باغها ٫ پارکها و فضایسبز [ویرایش]یکی از دو باغ قدیمی معروف پاریس باغ تویلری است که در قرن ۱۶ در حاشیه رود سن نزدیک کاخ لوور و در قسمت چپ باغ لوکزامبورگ ساخته شده است که برای کاخ خصوصی کاترین دو مدیچی ساخته شده است.[۸۳][۸۴] دیگر باغ معروف پاریس باغ گیاهان است. این باغ به دستور دکتر گای دو لابروس پزشک مخصوص لویی سیزدهم برای پرورش گیاهان دارویی ساخته شد، و نخستین باغ عمومی پاریس است.[۸۵] قدمت دیگر باغهای بزرگ پاریس به دوران امپراتوری دوم بر میگردد. پارکهای بوت شامون، مونتسوری و مونسو که به وسیله ژان شارل آلفان، یکی از مهندسان ناپلئون سوم، ساخته شدهاند. دیگر پارکها به دستور بارون هاوسمن ساخته شدهاند که شامل پارک جنگلی بولوین و ونسن میشوند. از دیگر پارکهای بزرگ پاریس میتوان پارک دولاویل ساخته شده توسط آرشیتکت معروف برنارد شومی را نام برد.پاریس با دارا بودن ۴۷۵٬۰۰۰ درخت از ۱۲۰ گونه مختلف گیاهی سبزترین پایتخت اروپا است.[۲۳] در مجموع پاریس دارای بیش از ۴۰۰ پارک عمومی است.[۲۳] گورستانهای پاریس [ویرایش]ساخت گورستانهای امروزی پاریس به سال ۱۸۰۴ میلادی برمیگردد. تا قبل از این تاریخ هر یک از کلیساهای پاریس دارای یک گورستان اختصاصی بودند اما از اواخر قرن ۱۸ میلادی تصمیم به ساخت گورستانی واحد برای پاریس گرفتهشد. با توسعه شهر پاریس و پر شدن این گورستان، گورستانهای دیگری نیز جهت تدفین مردگان در حاشیه این شهر ساخته شد که از معروفترین آنها میتوان به گورستان مشهور پرلاشز، گورستان مون پارناس، گورستان مون مارتر و گورستان پاسی نام برد. در قرن بیستم نیز بنا به توسعه این شهر گورستانهایی به آن افزوده شدند که میتوان به گورستان سن اوون، گورستان دیوری و گورستان باژنو نام برد. تعدادی از گورستانهای پاریس ارزش تاریخی و فرهنگی بالایی دارند، از آن جمله میتوان از گورستان پرلاشز نام برد که آرامگاه بسیاری از مردان و زنان بزرگ جهان نظیر بالزاک، کلود برنارد، صادق هدایت، ادیت پیاف، غلامحسین ساعدی، اسکار وایلد، امیل زولا، مولیر و فردریک شوپن است نام برد. این گورستان به عنوان مشهورترین گورستان جهان شناخته میشود. فرهنگ و هنر [ویرایش]اپرا، تئاتر و موسیقی [ویرایش]از بزرگترین اپراهای پاریس میتوان از اپرای قرن نوزدهمی گارنیه و اپرا باستیل نام برد. در این اپراها انواع بالههای کلاسیک و اپراهای ترکیبی کلاسیک و مدرن اجرا میشود. تئاتر به صورت سنتی جایگاه ویژهای در فرهنگ پاریسی دارد.گرچه امروزه بسیاری از بازیگران مشهور تئاتر، بازیگر تلویزیونهای فرانسوی نیز هستند.تعدادی از تئاترهای اصلی پاریس را میتوان به این ترتیب نامبرد:تئاتر اودئون، تئاتر بوبینو، تئاتر موگادور و تئاتر دولاگیته مون پارناس . به طور کل در حدود ۱۴۳ سالن تئاتر در شهر پاریس وجود دارد.[۸۶] بعضی از سالنهای تئاتر در پاریس، همزمان به عنوان سالن کنسرت نیز مورد بهرهبرداری قرارمیگیرند.بسیاری از خوانندگان مشهور فرانسوی نظیر ادیت پیاف، موریس شوالیه، جورج براسون و شارل آزناوور شهرت خود را از اجرا در این سالنها کسب کردهاند. سالن الیزه مون مارتر نیز امروزه به عنوان سالن کنسرت مورد استفاده قرار میگیرد. کلوب نیومورنینگ نیز یکی از ندرتاً کلوبهایی است که هنوز کنسرت جاز در آنها اجرا میشود. سالن زنیت در پاریس، محله لاویه و استادیوم پارکومنی اسپورت در محله برسی نیز به عنوان محل اجرای کنسرتهای عظیم سبک راک مورد استفاده قرار میگیرند. کافهها، رستورانها و کابارهها [ویرایش]
کاباره مولنروژ در پاریس، دارای آوازهای جهانی است.
کافههای پاریس از دیرباز شهرت جهانی داشتهاند. این کافهها با فضای کوچک داخلی و صندلیهای چیده شده در کنار خیابان و قهوههای خوشطعم و کیکهای خوشمزه نظر هر رهگذری را به سمت خود جلب میکند.از کافههای معروف پاریس میتوان از کافه دولاپه، کافه دوماگوت و کافه فلور نام برد. فرانسه به عقیده اکثر مردم جهان خوشمزهترین غذاهای دنیا را داراست، پس در نتیجه رستورانهای پاریسی نیز باید نمونه و نمودار کاملی از یک رستوران فرانسوی با غذاهای خوشطعم باشند. به همین خاطر است که پاریس رستورانهای درجهیک و عالی فراوانی دارد. به طور کل در حدود ۵۰۰۰ رستوران در پاریس به تهیه و طبخ غذا میپردازند. تعدادی از رستورانهای معروف پاریس شهرت بینالمللی دارند که میتوان به تعدادی از آنها اشاره کرد: رستوران لالزاس، رستوران ماکسیم، رستوران پییر گاگز، رستوران لزامباسادور، رستوران لاتراس و رستوران ویکند. به انتخاب «مجله رستوران» از ۵۰ رستوران برتر جهان در سال ۲۰۰۷ نه تا از این رستورانها در پاریس قراردارند.[۸۷] کابارههای پاریس نیز در نزد جهانیان شهرت فراوانی دارند. در میان این کابارهها میتوان از کاباره قرن نوزدهمی «مولن روژ» نام برد. این کاباره بارها محل اجرای کنسرتهای بزرگانی همچون الویس پریسلی، فرانک سیناترا و لاتویا جکسون بوده است .این کاباره در محله مونتمارتر قرار دارد.[۸۸] از دیگر کابارههای پاریس که شهرتی جهانی دارند میتوان از «کاباره لیدو» نام برد. این کاباره روزگاری میزبان کنسرتهای الویس پریسلی بوده است. این کاباره در خیابان شانز الیزه قرار دارد.[۸۹] نایت کلابها و کابارههای مشهور دیگری نیز در پاریس واقعاند که میتوان از: کاباره پاریس اولمپیا، فولی برگر، بوبینو، کریزی هورس، کلوب رکس، بودابار و کلوب جرج نام برد.[۹۰] هتلها [ویرایش]با توجه به تعداد بسیار زیاد توریستی که سالیانه به پاریس وارد میشوند پاریس نیز دارای تعداد زیادی هتل میباشد. بعضی از هتلهای پاریس شهرت جهانی دارند.این هتلها تاکنون میزبان مشاهیر و ثروتمندترین افراد جهان بودهاند. هتل ریتز که در اواخر سده نوزدهم میلادی افتتاح شده است تاکنون میزبان مشاهیری چون ارنست همینگوی، ادوارد فیتزجرالد، مارسل پروست، ادوارد هفتم پادشاه انگلستان، رضاشاه، مرلین دتریش، التون جان، رودولف والنتینو، چارلی چاپلین، ژان پل سارتر و گرتا گاربو بوده است.[۹۱]
نمایی از سالن موسوم به ناپلئون در هتل کونتیننتال پاریس.
هتل کریلیون نیز که در میدان کنکورد قرار دارد به عنوان یکی از معروفترین هتلهای لوکس جهان شناخته میشود. این هتل که دارای ۱۰۳ اتاق و ۴۴ سوئیت است در قرن هجدهم ساخته شده است.این هتل نیز محل اقامت مشاهیری چون وودرو ویلسون، تئودور روزولت، هربرت هوور و ریچارد نیکسون رئیسجمهوران آمریکا، جرج پنجم پادشاه انگلستان، حسن دوم پادشاه مراکش، امپراتور هیروهیتو امپراتور ژاپن، ژاکلین کندی، چارلی چاپلین، ارسن ولز، الیزابت تیلور، تیرون پاور، اکسل روز، آرنولد شوارتزنگر، ماریا کری و مادونا بوده است.[۹۲] از دیگر هتلهای پاریس میتوان از هتل ۱۰0۰ اتاقه کنکورد لافایت، هتل جرج پنجم، هتل کلونی، هتل کونتیننتال، هتل بریستول، هتل پلازا آتن، هتل لوتشیا و هتل رویال مونسو نامبرد. سینما [ویرایش]پرونده:LaMome.jpg
سر در یکی از سینماهای پاریس
با توجه به اینکه فرانسه دارای دومین صنعت سینما در جهان میباشد، توجه مردم این کشور به سینما امری طبیعی است. در سرتاسر فرانسه در حدود ۴۵۰۰ سالن سینما وجود دارد که ۳۷۵ عدد از این سینماها در پاریس واقعشده است.[۸۶] بزرگترین سالن سینمای پاریس گراند رکس نام داشته که ۲۸۰۰ نفر ظرفیت دارد. امروزه مجموعههای عظیمی با تعداد زیادی سالن نمایش (در حدود ۱۰ تا ۲۰ سالن) در پاریس ساخته شده است. سالانه ۳۰ میلیون بلیت سینما در پاریس فروش میرود.[۸۶] بهای بلیط سینما در این شهر در حدود ۸ یورو بوده و در روزهای دوشنبه هر هفته به صورت نیمبها به فروش میرسد.[۹۳] همچنین جشنوارهای به نام «فرنچ راندوو» به طور سالانه در پاریس برگزار میشود که پس از جشنواره کن و جشنواره برلین سومین جشنواره مهم سینمایی قاره اروپا محسوب میشود.[۹۴] توریسم [ویرایش]جستار وابسته: فهرست موزههای پاریس
پاریس در گذشته نیز همیشه مقصدی برای تجار، دانشجویان و زائران مذهبی بوده است. اما صنعت توریسم در مقیاس بزرگ امروزی با ظهور راهآهن در سال ۱۸۴۸ در پاریس آغاز شد. اولین باری که پاریس به عنوان مقصد موردتوجه توریستها مورد نظر قرار گرفت به برگزاری نمایشگاه جهانی در سال ۱۸۵۵ بازمیگردد. برگزاری نمایشگاههای جهانی در پاریس عامل موثری در جذب توریست و توسعه در پاریس قرن نوزدهم بوده است. برج ایفل نیز حاصل نمایشگاه جهانی ۱۸۸۹ پاریس است. همچنین تلاشهای صورت گرفته در زمان امپراتوری دوم در پاریس و توسعه آن نقش بسزایی در توسعه توریسم در پاریس داشته است. بناها و موزههای مشهور پاریس در بین پربازدید کنندهترین آثار توریستی جهان جای دارند. پاریس با دارا بودن بیش از ۳۰ میلیون توریست در سال در صدر پر بازدیدترین شهرهای جهان قرار دارد.[۱۸] [۱۹] [۲۰] [۹۵] موزه لوور در پاریس سالیانه هشت میلیون توریست را به خود جذب میکند که به همین دلیل به عنوان پر بینندهترین موزه جهان شناخته میشود.[۹۶][۹۷][۹۸][۹۹] کلیسای نوتردام با ۱۳ میلیون و کلیسای سکره کر با ۱۲ میلیون بازدید سالیانه توسط توریستها از دیگر قطبهای جذب توریست در پاریس هستند.[۱۰۰] [۱۰۱] برج ایفل نیز به عنوان مشهورترین اثر شهری پاریس سالانه به طور متوسط ۶٫۵ میلیون بازدید کننده دارد. این برج از زمان شروع به کار تاکنون بیش از ۲۳۰ میلیون بازدیدکننده را به خود جذب کرده است.[۱۰۲] دیزنیلند پاریس که پربینندهترین اثر توریستی قاره اروپا محسوب میشود نیز در پاریس قرار داشته و سالانه بیش از ۱۴٫۵ میلیون بازدیدکننده دارد.[۱۰۳] پاریس با دارا بودن بیش از ۱۵۰ موزه سالانه میلیونها توریست خارجی را به سمت این موزهها جذب میکند. در این میان موزه لوور که به عنوان مشهورترین و بزرگترین موزه جهان شناخته میشود میزبان تعدادی از مشهورترین آثار تاریخی و هنری چهان است. از این جمله میتوان به تابلو مونالیزا یا لبخند ژوکوند اثر لئوناردو داوینچی، مجسمه مشهور ونوس اثر مشهور دوره یونان باستان مربوط به ۱۳۰ سال پیش از میلاد مسیح و آثار تمدنهای بزرگ بین النهرین، ایران باستان و مصر باستان اشاره کرد.آثار پابلو پیکاسو در موزه پیکاسو و آثار آگوست رودین در موزه رودین در پاریس نگهداری میشود.مرکز ملی هنر و فرهنگ ژرژ پمپیدو نیز میزبان موزه ملی هنر مدرن است. انجمن هنری مون پارناس نیز دارای موزهای به نام موزه مون پارناس است. آثار هنری مربوط به دوره رونسانس و آثار هنری سبک امپرسیونیسم نیز در موزههای کلونی و اورسی نگهداری میشوند. موزه تازه تأسیس کوا برانلی که در سال ۲۰۰۶ گشایش یافت نیز سومین موزه بزرگ پاریس بوده و دارای آثاری از قارههای آفریقا، آسیا، اقیانوسیه و آمریکا میباشد. علاوه بر موزهها و ساختمانهای مشهور، مکانهایی همچون کابارهها، رستورانها، هتلها، پارکها، باغها و کاخهای مشهور پاریسی نیز از جمله نقاط توریستی پاریس محسوب میشوند و سالانه میلیونها توریست را از سراسر جهان به سمت خود جلب میکنند.
نمایی از ورزشگاه استاد دو فرانس
ورزش [ویرایش]پاریس میزبان تیم فوتبال پاریس سن ژرمن (Paris Saint-Germain FC)، تیم بسکتبال پاریس بسکت ریسینگ (Paris Basket Racing) و تیم راگبی استات فرانسه (Stade Français) است.[۱۰۴] ورزشگاه ۸۰٫۰۰۰ نفری و ۵ ستاره استاد دوفرانس نیز در پاریس قرار دارد. فینال مسابقات جام جهانی فوتبال ۱۹۹۸ و فینال مسابقات جام جهانی راگبی در سال ۲۰۰۷ در این ورزشگاه برگزار شده است. این ورزشگاه جهت انجام مسابقات فوتبال، راگبی و دو و میدانی مورد استفاده قرار میگیرد. این ورشگاه سالانه میزبان بازیهای خانگی تیم ملی فوتبال و راگبی فرانسه و همچنین بازیهای باشگاهی این دو رشته است.همچنین فینال جام قهرمانان باشگاههای اروپا در سال ۲۰۰۶ نیز میان دو تیم بارسلونا و آرسنال در ورزشگاه استاد دو فرانس برگزار شد.[۱۰۵] پاریس میزبان بازیهای المپیک تابستانی سالهای ۱۹۰۰ و ۱۹۲۴ و جامهای جهانی فوتبال ۱۹۳۸ و ۱۹۹۸ بوده است. همچنین مکان آغاز و پایان بزرگترین مسابقات دوچرخهسواری جهان یعنی تور دو فرانس در این شهر میباشد. همچنی سالانه مسابقات تنیس آزاد فرانسه (رولند گاروس) که یکی از ۴ گرانداسلم بزرگ تنیس در جهان است نیز در پاریس برگزار میشود. علاوه بر این مسابقات همچنین میتوان از مسابقات بیمالمللی دو ماراتون پاریس، مسابقات تنیس مسترز پاریس، مسابقات اسبدوانی رپوبلیک و جام اسبدوانی گراند پریکس لارک تریومف نام برد.[۱۰۶] [۱۰۷] مردم پاریس نیز به ورزش بسیار علاقهمند بوده و از امکانات ورزشی این شهر بهره میبرند در پاریس هزاران مجموعه کوچک و بزرگ عمومی و خصوصی ورزشی وجود دارد که از آن جمله میتوان به ۱۳۹ مجموعه ورزشی عمومی ، ۳۷ استادیوم ورزشی ، ۴۶ مجموعه زمینهای تنیس و ۳۷ مجموعه استخر[۱۰۸] اشاره کرد. علاوه بر این ۲۰٫۰۰۰ دوچرخه نیز در ۱٫۴۵۱ ایستگاه در اختیار مردم قرار دارد. در مجموع در پاریس بیش از ۳۷۰ کیلومتر مسیر اختصاصی دوچرخه موجود است.[۲۳] روابط بینالمللی [ویرایش]پاریس دارای یک شهر خواهر و تعدادی شهر شریک است. [۱۰۹][۱۱۰] شهر خواهر [ویرایش]
شهرهای شریک [ویرایش]آثار دیدنی [ویرایش]
نگارخانه [ویرایش]
پیوند به بیرون [ویرایش]
منابع و توضیحات [ویرایش]
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Coordinates: 48°51′24″N 2°21′03″E / 48.8567°N 2.3508°E This article is about the capital of France. For other uses, see Paris (disambiguation).
Paris (English /ˈpærɪs/, An important settlement for more than two millennia, Paris had become, by the 12th century, one of Europe's foremost centres of learning and the arts and was the largest city in the Western world until the turn of the 18th century. Paris is today one of the world's leading business and cultural centres and its influences in politics, education, entertainment, media, science, and the arts all contribute to its status as one of the world's major global cities. Paris and the Paris region account for more than 30% of the gross domestic product of France and have one of the largest city GDPs in the world, with €607 billion (US$845 billion) in 2011.[5] Considered as green and highly liveable, the city and its region are the world's leading tourism destination, hosting four UNESCO World Heritage Sites and many international organizations, including UNESCO and the European Space Agency.
Etymology [edit]The name Paris derives from that of its earliest inhabitants, the Gaulish tribe known as the Parisii. The city was called Lutetia (more fully, Lutetia Parisiorum, "Lutetia of the Parisii"), during the Roman era of the 1st to the 4th century AD, but during the reign of Julian the Apostate (360–363), the city was renamed Paris.[6] It is believed that the name of the Parisii tribe comes from the Celtic Gallic word parisio meaning "the working people" or "the craftsmen".[7] Paris has many nicknames, but its most famous is "La Ville-Lumière" ("The City of Light"),[8] a name it owes first to its fame as a centre of education and ideas during the Age of Enlightenment, and later to its early adoption of street lighting. Paris became known as Ville Lumière in the second half of the 19th century, when Baron Haussmann, who had been put in charge by emperor Napoléon III of the drastic transformation of Paris into a modern city, tore down whole quartiers of houses and narrow streets dating back to the Middle Ages, and opened large avenues which let light (lumière) come into the former medieval city.[9] Since the mid-19th century, Paris has been known as Paname[10] ([panam]) in the Parisian slang called argot ( Paris' inhabitants are known in English as "Parisians" and in French as Parisiens ([paʁizjɛ̃] (
History [edit]Main article: History of Paris
Origins [edit]The earliest archaeological signs of permanent settlements in the Paris area date from around 4500–4200 BC,[12] with some of the oldest evidence of canoe-use by hunter-gatherer peoples being uncovered in Bercy in 1991.[13] The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the area near the river Seine from around 250 BC,[14][15] building a trading settlement on the island, later the Île de la Cité, the easiest place to cross.[16] The Romans conquered the Paris basin around 52 BC,[12] with a permanent settlement by the end of the same century on the Left Bank Sainte Geneviève Hill and the Île de la Cité. The Gallo-Roman town was originally called Lutetia, or Lutetia Parisorum but later Gallicised to Lutèce. It expanded greatly over the following centuries, becoming a prosperous city with a forum, palaces, baths, temples, theatres, and an amphitheatre.[17] The collapse of the Roman empire and the 5th-century Germanic invasions sent the city into a period of decline. By AD 400, Lutèce, largely abandoned by its inhabitants, was little more than a garrison town entrenched into a hastily fortified central island.[12] The city reclaimed its original appellation of "Paris" towards the end of the Roman occupation, around 360 AD.[6] Merovingian and Feudal eras [edit]
Clovis I, the first king of the Merovingian dynasty
The Paris region was under full control of the Salian Franks by the late 5th century. The Frankish king Clovis the Frank, the first king of the Merovingian dynasty, made the city his capital from 508 and was responsible for converting the city back to Christianity.[18] The late 8th century Carolingian dynasty displaced the Frankish capital to Aachen; this period coincided with the beginning of Viking invasions that had spread as far as Paris by the early 9th century.[18] One of the most remarkable Viking raids was on 28 March 845, when Paris was sacked and held ransom, probably by Ragnar Lodbrok, who left only after receiving a large bounty paid by the crown. Repeated invasions forced Eudes, Count of Paris, to build a fortress on the Île de la Cité in 885, but the city soon suffered a siege lasting almost a year – eventually relieved by the Carolingian king, Charles "the fat", who instead of attacking allowed the besiegers to sail up the Seine and lay waste to Burgundy.[18] Eudes then took the crown for himself, plunging the French crown into dynastic turmoil lasting over a century until 987 when Hugh Capet, count of Paris, was elected king of France. Paris, under the Capetian kings, became a capital once more, and his coronation is seen by many historians as the moment marking the birth of modern France.[18] Middle Ages to 18th century [edit]
The Château de Vincennes, built between the 14th and 17th century.
Paris became prosperous and by the end of the 11th century, scholars, teachers and monks flocked to the city to engage in intellectual exchanges, to teach and be taught; Philippe-Auguste founded the University of Paris in 1200.[18] The guilds gradually became more powerful and were instrumental in inciting the first revolt after the king was captured by the English in 1356.[19] Paris' population was around 200,000[20] when the Black Death arrived in 1348, killing as many as 800 people a day; and 40,000 died from the plague in 1466.[21] During the 16th and 17th centuries, plague visited the city for almost one year out of three.[22] Paris lost its position as seat of the French realm during the occupation by the English-allied Burgundians during the Hundred Years' War, but when Charles VII of France reclaimed the city from English rule in 1436, Paris became France's capital once again in title, although the real centre of power would remain in the Loire Valley[23] until King Francis I returned France's crown residences to Paris in 1528. During the French Wars of Religion, Paris was a stronghold of the Catholic party. In August 1572, under the reign of Charles IX, while many noble Protestants were in Paris on the occasion of the marriage of Henri of Navarre – the future Henri IV – to Margaret of Valois, sister of Charles IX, the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre occurred; beginning on 24 August, it lasted several days and spread throughout the country.[24][25] In 1590 Henri IV unsuccessfully laid siege to the city in the Siege of Paris, but, threatened with usurption from Philip II of Spain, he converted to Catholicism in 1594, and the city welcomed him as king.[19] The Bourbons, Henri's family, spend vast amounts of money keeping the city under control, building the Ile St-Louis as well as bridges and other infrastructure.[19] However, unhappy with their lack of political representation, in 1648 Parisians rose in a rebellion known as the Fronde and the royal family fled the city. King Louis XIV later moved the royal court permanently to Versailles, a lavish estate on the outskirts of Paris,[19] in 1682. The following century was an "Age of Enlightenment" – Paris' reputation grew on the writings of its intellectuals such as the philosopher Voltaire, and Diderot, the first volume of his Encyclopédie being published in Paris in 1751.[26] French Revolution [edit]Main article: French Revolution
At the end of the century, Paris was the centre stage for the French Revolution; a bad harvest in 1788 causes food prices to rocket and by the following year the sovereign debt had reached unprecedented levels.[27] On 14 July 1789 Parisians, appalled by the King’s pressure on the new assembly formed by the Third Estate, took siege of the Bastille fortress, a symbol of absolutism,[28] starting revolution and rejecting the divine right of monarchs in France. Jean-Sylvain Bailly, the first Mayor, was elected on 15 July 1789, and two days later the national tricolour flag with the colours of Paris (blue and red) and of the King (white) was adopted at the Hôtel de Ville by Louis XVI. The Republic was declared for the first time in 1792. In 1793, Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette were executed on the Place de la Révolution, in Paris, the site of many executions. The guillotine was most active during the "Reign of Terror", in the summer of 1794, when in a single month more than 1,300 people were executed. Following the Terror, the French Directory held control until it was overthrown in a coup d'état by Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon put an end to the Revolution and established French Consulate, and then later was elected by plebscite[29] as emperor of the First French Empire.[30] 19th century [edit]Paris was occupied by Russian and Allied armies upon Napoleon's defeat on the 31 March 1814; this was the first time in 400 years that the city had been conquered by a foreign power.[31] The ensuing Restoration period, or the return of the monarchy under Louis XVIII (1814–1824) and Charles X, ended with the July Revolution Parisian uprising of 1830. The new "constitutional monarchy" under Louis-Philippe ended with the 1848 "February Revolution" that led to the creation of the Second Republic. Throughout these events, cholera epidemics in 1832 and 1850 ravaged the population of Paris; the 1832 epidemic alone claimed 20,000 of the population of 650,000.[32] The greatest development in Paris' history began with the Industrial Revolution creation of a network of railways that brought an unprecedented flow of migrants to the capital from the 1840s. The city's largest transformation came with the 1852 Second Empire under Napoleon III; his préfet, Baron Haussmann, levelled entire districts of Paris' narrow, winding medieval streets to create the network of wide avenues and neo-classical façades that still make up much of modern Paris; the reason for this transformation was twofold, as not only did the creation of wide boulevards beautify and sanitize the capital, it also facilitated the effectiveness of troops and artillery against any further uprisings and barricades for which Paris was so famous.[33]
Drilling (opening/alignment/widening) of numerous streets under the Second Empire and the Third Republic
The Second Empire ended in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), and a besieged Paris under heavy bombardment surrendered on 28 January 1871. The discontent of Paris' populace with the new armistice-signing government seated in Versailles resulted in the creation of the Paris Commune government, supported by an army created in large part of members of the city's former National Guard who would both continue resistance against the Prussians and oppose the army of the "Versaillais" government. The Paris Commune ended with the Semaine Sanglante ("Bloody Week"), during which roughly 20,000 "Communards" were executed before the fighting ended on 28 May 1871.[34] The ease with which the Versaillais army overtook Paris owed much to Baron Haussmann's renovations. France's late 19th-century Universal Expositions made Paris an increasingly important centre of technology, trade, and tourism.[35] Its most famous were the 1889 Exposition universelle to which Paris owes its "temporary" display of architectural engineering progress, the Eiffel Tower, which remained the world's tallest structure until 1930; the 1900 Universal Exposition saw the opening of the first Paris Métro line. 20th century [edit]During World War I, Paris was at the forefront of the war effort, having been spared a German invasion by the French and British victory at the First Battle of the Marne in 1914 within earshot of the city.[36] In 1918–1919, it was the scene of Allied victory parades and peace negotiations. In the inter-war period, Paris was famed for its cultural and artistic communities and its nightlife. The city became a gathering place of artists from around the world, from exiled Russian composer Stravinsky and Spanish painters Picasso and Dalí to American writer Hemingway.[37]
The Liberation of Paris, August 1944.
On 14 June 1940, five weeks after the start of the Battle of France, an undefended Paris fell to German occupation forces.[38] The Germans marched past the Arc de Triomphe on the 140th anniversary of Napoleon's victory at the Battle of Marengo.[39] German forces remained in Paris until the city was liberated in August 1944 after a resistance uprising, two and a half months after the Normandy invasion.[40] Central Paris endured World War II practically unscathed, as there were no strategic targets for Allied bombers (train stations in central Paris are terminal stations; major factories were located in the suburbs), and despite orders to destroy the city and all historic monuments the German commander Dietrich von Choltitz refused, gaining the popular title "Saviour of Paris" for his defiance of the Führer.[41] In the post-war era, Paris experienced its largest development since the end of the Belle Époque in 1914. The suburbs began to expand considerably, with the construction of large social estates known as cités and the beginning of La Défense, the business district. A comprehensive express subway network, the RER, was built to complement the Métro and serve the distant suburbs, while a network of freeways was developed in the suburbs, centred on the Périphérique expressway encircling the city.[42][43][44] Since the 1970s, many inner suburbs of Paris (especially the northern and eastern ones) have experienced deindustrialization, and the once-thriving cités have gradually become ghettos for immigrants and experienced significant unemployment.[45][46] At the same time, the city of Paris (within its Périphérique expressway) and the western and southern suburbs have successfully shifted their economic base from traditional manufacturing to high-value-added services and high-tech manufacturing, generating great wealth for their residents whose per capita income is among the highest in Europe.[47][48][49] The resulting widening social gap between these two areas has led to periodic unrest since the mid-1980s, such as the 2005 riots which were concentrated for the most part in the north-eastern suburbs.[50] 21st century [edit]A massive urban renewal project, the Grand Paris (Greater Paris), was launched in 2007 by former French President Nicolas Sarkozy.[51] It consists of various economic, cultural, housing, transport and environmental projects to reach a better integration of the territories and revitalise the metropolitan economy. The most emblematic project is the €26.5 billion construction by 2030 of a new automatic metro, which will consist of 200 kilometres (120 mi) of rapid-transit lines connecting the Grand Paris regions to one another and to the centre of Paris.[52] Nevertheless, the Paris metropolitan area is still divided into numerous territorial collectivities and their fusion into a more integrated metropolis government, although sometimes discussed[53] is not on the agenda.[54] An ad-hoc structure, Paris Métropole, has however been established in June 2009 to coordinate the action of 184 "Parisian" territorial collectivities.[55] In an effort to boost the global economic image of metropolitan Paris, several skyscrapers 300 metres (984 ft) and higher have been approved since 2006 in the business district of La Défense, to the west of the city proper, and are scheduled to be completed by the early 2010s. Paris authorities also stated publicly that they are planning to authorise the construction of skyscrapers within the city proper by relaxing the cap on building height for the first time since the construction of the Tour Montparnasse in the early 1970s.[56] Geography [edit]Main article: Topography of Paris
Paris is located in the north-bending arc of the river Seine and includes two islands, the Île Saint-Louis and the larger Île de la Cité, which form the oldest part of the city. Overall, the city is relatively flat, and the lowest point is 35 metres (115 ft) above sea level. Paris has several prominent hills, of which the highest is Montmartre at 130 metres (427 ft),[57] which gained its name from the martyrdom of Saint Denis, first bishop of Paris atop the "Mons Martyrum" (Martyr's mound) in 250 AD.[13]
Paris as seen from the Spot Satellite
Excluding the outlying parks of Bois de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes, Paris covers an oval measuring about 87 square kilometres (34 sq mi) in area, enclosed by the 35-kilometre (22 mi) ringroad, the Boulevard Périphérique.[58] The city's last major annexation of outlying territories in 1860 not only gave it its modern form but also created the twenty clockwise-spiralling arrondissements (municipal boroughs). From the 1860 area of 78 km2 (30 sq mi), the city limits were expanded marginally to 86.9 km2 (34 sq mi) in the 1920s. In 1929, the Bois de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes forest parks were officially annexed to the city, bringing its area to about 105 square kilometres (41 sq mi).[59] Climate [edit]Paris has the typical Western European oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb ) which is affected by the North Atlantic Current. Over a year, Paris' climate can be described as mild and moderately wet. Summer days are usually warm and pleasant with average temperatures hovering between 15 °C (59 °F) and 25 °C (77 °F), and a fair amount of sunshine.[60] Each year, however, there are a few days where the temperature rises above 32 °C (90 °F). Some years have even witnessed some long periods of harsh summer weather, such as the heat wave of 2003 where temperatures exceeded 30 °C (86 °F) for weeks, surged up to 40 °C (104 °F) on some days and seldom cooled down at night. More recently, the average temperature for July 2011 was 17.6 °C (64 °F), with an average minimum temperature of 12.9 °C (55 °F) and an average maximum temperature of 23.7 °C (75 °F).[61] Spring and autumn have, on average, mild days and fresh nights, but are changing and unstable. Surprisingly warm or cool weather occurs frequently in both seasons. In winter, sunshine is scarce; days are cold but generally above freezing with temperatures around 7 °C (45 °F). Light night frosts are however quite common, but the temperature will dip below −5 °C (23 °F) for only a few days a year. Snowfall is rare, but the city sometimes sees light snow or flurries with or without accumulation. Rain falls throughout the year, and although Paris is not a very rainy city, it is known for intense sudden showers. Average annual precipitation is 652 mm (25.7 in) with light rainfall fairly distributed throughout the year. The highest recorded temperature is 40.4 °C (105 °F) on 28 July 1948, and the lowest is a −23.9 °C (−11 °F) on 10 December 1879.[62]
Cityscape [edit]
Panorama of Paris as seen from the Eiffel Tower as full 360-degree view
Architecture [edit]
Boulevard Montmartre, by Camille Pissarro (1897)
Churches are the oldest intact buildings in the city, and showcase high Gothic architecture at its best - the Notre Dame cathedral and the church of Sainte-Chapelle are two of the most striking buildings in the city.[64] Much of contemporary Paris is the result of the vast mid-19th century urban remodelling. For centuries, the city had been a labyrinth of narrow streets and half-timber houses, but, beginning with Haussman's advent, entire quarters were levelled to make way for wide avenues lined with neo-classical stone buildings of bourgeoisie standing. Most of this "new" Paris is the Paris seen today.[65] The following half-century was a blossoming of architectural inspiration; the Basilique du Sacré-Cœur was a combination of Romanesque and neo-Byzantine design paradigms built in 1871 as an appeasement against the "sins" of the atheist communards and as an offering in thanks for the lifting of the Prussian siege.[66] Paris' most famous architecture, the Eiffel Tower, was built as a temporary exhibit for the 1889 World Fair and remains an enduring symbol of the capital with its iconic structure and position towering over much of the city.[65] The building code has seen few changes since the 1850s, and the Second Empire plans are in many cases still followed. The "alignement" law is still in place, which regulates building façades of new constructions according to a pre-defined street width. A building's height is limited according to the width of the streets it borders, and under the regulation, it is almost impossible to get an approval to build a taller building.[67] Many of Paris' important institutions are located outside the city limits. The financial (La Défense) business district; the main food wholesale market (Rungis); schools (École Polytechnique; ESSEC; INSEAD; HEC); research laboratories (in Saclay or Évry); the largest stadium (the Stade de France), and the government offices (Ministry of Transportation) are located in the city's suburbs.[68] Districts and historical centres [edit]Main article: Paris districts
City of Paris [edit]
In the Paris area [edit]
Avenue des Champs-Élysées during Christmas.
Monuments and landmarks [edit]Main article: List of visitor attractions in Paris
Three of the most famous Parisian landmarks are the 12th-century cathedral Notre Dame de Paris on the Île de la Cité, the Napoleonic Arc de Triomphe and the 19th-century Eiffel Tower. The Eiffel Tower was a "temporary" construction by Gustave Eiffel for the 1889 Universal Exposition, but the tower was never dismantled and is now an enduring symbol of Paris. The Axe historique (Historical axis) is a line of monuments, buildings, and thoroughfares that run in a roughly straight line from the city-centre westwards.[74]
The Panthéon
The line of monuments begins with the Louvre and continues through the Tuileries Gardens, the Champs-Élysées, and the Arc de Triomphe, centred in the Place de l'Étoile circus. From the 1960s, the line was prolonged even farther west to the La Défense business district dominated by a square-shaped triumphal Grande Arche of its own; this district hosts most of the tallest skyscrapers in the Paris urban area. The Invalides museum is the burial place for many great French soldiers, including Napoleon; and the Panthéon church is where many of France's illustrious men and women are buried. The former Conciergerie prison held some prominent Ancien Régime members before their deaths during the French Revolution. Another symbol of the Revolution are the two Statues of Liberty located on the Île aux Cygnes on the Seine and in the Luxembourg Garden. A larger version of the statues was sent as a gift from France to America in 1886 and now stands in New York City's harbour. The Palais Garnier, built in the later Second Empire period, houses the Paris Opéra and the Paris Opera Ballet, while the former palace of the Louvre now houses one of the most renowned museums in the world. The Sorbonne is the most famous part of the University of Paris and is based in the centre of the Latin Quarter. Apart from Notre Dame de Paris, there are several other ecclesiastical masterpieces, including the Gothic 13th-century Sainte-Chapelle palace chapel and the Église de la Madeleine. Parks and gardens [edit]Main article: List of parks and gardens in Paris
Two of Paris' oldest and famous gardens are the Tuileries Garden, created in the 16th century for a palace on the banks of the Seine near the Louvre, and the Left bank Luxembourg Garden, another former private garden belonging to a château built for Marie de' Medici in 1612. The Jardin des Plantes, created by Louis XIII's doctor Guy de La Brosse for the cultivation of medicinal plants, was Paris' first public garden. A few of Paris' other large gardens are Second Empire creations: The former suburban parks of Montsouris, Parc des Buttes Chaumont, and Parc Monceau (formerly known as the "folie de Chartres") are creations of Napoleon III's engineer Jean-Charles Alphand. Another project executed under the orders of Baron Haussmann was the re-sculpting of Paris' western Bois de Boulogne forest-parklands; the Bois de Vincennes, on the city's opposite eastern end, received a similar treatment in years following. Newer additions to Paris' park landscape are the Parc de la Villette, built by the architect Bernard Tschumi on the location of Paris' former slaughterhouses; the Parc André Citroën, and gardens being laid to the periphery along the traces of its former circular "Petite Ceinture" railway line: Promenade Plantée. Water and sanitation [edit]
A view of the Seine from the Pont Neuf.
Paris in its early history had only the Seine and Bièvre rivers for water. Later forms of irrigation were a 1st-century Roman aqueduct from southerly Wissous (later left to ruin); sources from the Right bank hills from the late 11th century; from the 15th century, an aqueduct built roughly along the path of the abandoned Wissous aqueduct; also, from 1809, the canal de l'Ourcq, providing Paris with water from less-polluted rivers to the northeast of the capital, and "God's Tears", a bi-annual rainstorm, which stopped in the early 20th century as a natural phenomenon. Paris would have its first constant and plentiful source of drinkable water only from the late 19th century. From 1857, the civil engineer Eugène Belgrand, under Napoleon III's Préfet Haussmann, oversaw the construction of a series of new aqueducts that brought water from locations all around the city to several reservoirs built atop the Capital's highest points of elevation. From then on, the new reservoir system became Paris' principal source of drinking water, and the remains of the old system, pumped into lower levels of the same reservoirs, were from then on used for the cleaning of Paris' streets. This system is still a major part of Paris' modern water-supply network. Paris has over 2,400 km (1,491 mi) of underground passageways[75] dedicated to the evacuation of Paris' liquid wastes. Most of these date from the late 19th century, a result of the combined plans of the Préfet Baron Haussmann and the civil engineer Eugène Belgrand to improve the then-very unsanitary conditions in the Capital. Maintained by a round-the-clockservice since their construction, only a small percentage of Paris' sewer réseau has needed complete renovation.[citation needed] In 1982, then mayor Jacques Chirac introduced the motorcycle-mounted Motocrotte to remove dog faeces from Paris streets.[76] The project was abandoned in 2002 for a new and better enforced local law which now fines dog owners up to 500 euros for not removing their dog faeces. It was estimated at the time of their removal, that the fleet of 70 Motocrottes were cleaning up only 20% of dog faeces on Parisian street – at an annual cost of £3 million.[77] The air pollution in Paris, from the point of view of particulate matter (pm10), is the highest in France, with 38 µg/m³.[78] Cemeteries [edit]
The Paris Catacombs hold the remains of approximately 6 million people.
Paris' main cemetery was located to its outskirts on its Left Bank from the beginning of its history,[citation needed] but this changed with the rise of Catholicism and the construction of churches towards the city-centre, many of them having adjoining burial grounds for use by their parishes. Generations of a growing city population soon filled these cemeteries to overflowing, creating sometimes very unsanitary conditions. Condemned from 1786, the contents of all Paris' parish cemeteries were transferred to a renovated section of Paris' then suburban stone mines outside the Left Bank "Porte d'Enfer" city gate (today 14th arrondissement's place Denfert-Rochereau). Part of this network of tunnels and remains can be visited today on the official tour of the Catacombs. After a tentative creation of several smaller suburban cemeteries, Napoleon Bonaparte provided a more definitive solution in the creation of three massive Parisian cemeteries outside the city tax wall called the Wall of the Farmers-General. Open from 1804, these were the cemeteries of Père Lachaise, Montmartre, Montparnasse, and later Passy. When Paris annexed all communes to the inside of its much larger ring of suburban fortifications in 1860, its cemeteries were once again within its city walls. New suburban cemeteries were created in the early 20th century: The largest of these are the Cimetière Parisien de Saint-Ouen, the Cimetière Parisien de Bobigny-Pantin, the Cimetière Parisien d'Ivry, and the Cimetière Parisien de Bagneux. Culture [edit]Main article: Culture of Paris
Entertainment and performing arts [edit]See also: List of films set in Paris
The Opéra Garnier.
The largest opera houses of Paris are the 19th century Opéra Garnier (historical Paris Opéra) and modern Opéra Bastille; the former tends towards the more classic ballets and operas, and the latter provides a mixed repertoire of classic and modern. In middle of 19th century, there were two other active and competing opera houses: Opéra-Comique (which still exists to this day) and Théâtre Lyrique (which in modern times changed its profile and name to Théâtre de la Ville). Theatre traditionally has occupied a large place in Parisian culture. This still holds true today, and many of its most popular actors today are also stars of French television. Some of Paris' major theatres include Bobino, Théâtre Mogador, and the Théâtre de la Gaîté-Montparnasse. Some Parisian theatres have also doubled as concert halls. Many of France's greatest musical legends, such as Édith Piaf, Maurice Chevalier, Georges Brassens, and Charles Aznavour, found their fame in Parisian concert halls: Legendary yet still-showing examples of these are Le Lido, Bobino, l'Olympia and le Splendid. The Élysées-Montmartre, much reduced from its original size, is a concert hall today. The New Morning is one of few Parisian clubs still holding jazz concerts, but the same also specialises in "indie" music. In more recent times, the Le Zénith hall in the La Villette district of Paris and a "parc-omnisports" stadium in Bercy serve as large-scale rock concert halls.
Dance at the Moulin de la Galette, by Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1876)
Several yearly festivals take place in Paris, such as Rock en Seine.[79] Parisians tend to share the same movie-going trends as many of the world's global cities, that is to say with a dominance of Hollywood-generated film entertainment. French cinema comes a close second, with major directors (réalisateurs) such as Claude Lelouch, François Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, Claude Chabrol, and Luc Besson, and the more slapstick/popular genre with director Claude Zidi as an example. European and Asian films are also widely shown and appreciated. A specialty of Paris is its very large network of small cinemas. In a given week, the movie fan has the choice between around 300 old or new movies from all over the world. Many of Paris' concert/dance halls were transformed into movie theatres when the media became popular beginning in the 1930s. Later, most of the largest cinemas were divided into multiple, smaller rooms: Paris' largest cinema today is by far le Grand Rex theatre with 2,800 seats, whereas other cinemas all have fewer than 1,000 seats. There is now a trend toward modern multiplexes that contain more than 10 or 20 screens. Antoine Lumière realized, on 28 December 1895, the first projection, with the Cinematograph, in Paris.[80] Philippe Binant realized, on 2 February 2000, the first digital cinema projection in Europe, with the DLP CINEMA technology developed by Texas Instruments, in Paris.[81] Cuisine [edit]See also: French cuisine
Paris' culinary reputation has its base in the diverse origins of its inhabitants. In its beginnings, it owed much to the 19th-century organisation of a railway system that had Paris as a centre, making the capital a focal point for immigration from France's many different regions and gastronomical cultures. This reputation continues through today in a cultural diversity that has since spread to a worldwide level thanks to Paris' continued reputation for culinary finesse and further immigration from increasingly distant climes. Paris and Île-de-France are central regions where almost anything from the country is available, as all train lines meet in the city. Over 9,000 restaurants exist in Paris and almost any cuisine can be had here. High-quality Michelin Guide rated restaurants proliferate here.[82] Hotel building was another result of widespread travel and tourism in the 19th century, especially Paris' late-19th-century Expositions Universelles (World's Fairs). Of the most luxurious of these, the Hôtel Ritz appeared in the Place Vendôme in 1898, and the Hôtel de Crillon opened its doors on the north side of the Place de la Concorde, starting in 1909. Tourism [edit]
Main article: Tourism in Paris
See also: List of museums in Paris and List of tourist attractions in Paris
Since 1848, Paris has been a popular destination by rail network, with Paris at its centre. Among Paris' first mass attractions drawing international interest were the above-mentioned Expositions Universelles that were the origin of Paris' many monuments, namely the Eiffel Tower from 1889. These, in addition to the capital's Second Empire embellishments, did much to make the city itself the attraction it is today. Paris receives around 28 million tourists per year[83] (42 in the whole Paris Region),[84] of which 17 million are foreign visitors,[85] which makes the city and its region the world's leading tourism destination,[86] housing four UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[87] Its museums and monuments are among its highest-esteemed attractions; tourism has motivated both the city and national governments to create new ones. The city's most prized museum, the Louvre, welcomes over eight million visitors a year, being by far the world's most-visited art museum. The city's cathedrals are another main attraction: Notre Dame de Paris and the Basilique du Sacré-Coeur receive 12 million and eight million visitors, respectively. The Eiffel Tower, by far Paris' most famous monument, averages over six million visitors per year and more than 200 million since its construction. Disneyland Paris is a major tourist attraction for visitors to not only Paris but also the rest of Europe, with 14.5 million visitors in 2007. The Louvre is one of the world's largest and most famous museums, housing many works of art, including the Mona Lisa (La Joconde) and the Venus de Milo statue. Works by Pablo Picasso and Auguste Rodin are found in the Musée Picassoand the Musée Rodin, respectively, while the artistic community of Montparnasse is chronicled at the Musée du Montparnasse. Starkly apparent with its service-pipe exterior, the Centre Georges Pompidou, also known as Beaubourg, houses the Musée National d'Art Moderne. Art and artifacts from the Middle Ages and Impressionist eras are kept in the Musée de Cluny and the Musée d'Orsay, respectively, the former with the prized tapestry cycle The Lady and the Unicorn. Paris' newest (and third-largest) museum, the Musée du quai Branly, opened its doors in June 2006 and houses art from Africa, Asia, Oceania, and the Americas. Many of Paris' once-popular local establishments have come to cater to the tastes and expectations of tourists, rather than local patrons, such as Le Lido on the Avenue Champs-Élysées, among others. The Moulin Rouge cabaret-dancehall, for example, is a staged dinner theatre spectacle, a dance display that was once but one aspect of the cabaret's former atmosphere. All of the establishment's former social or cultural elements, such as its ballrooms and gardens, are gone today. Much of Paris' hotel, restaurant and night entertainment trades have become heavily dependent on tourism. Sports [edit]Paris' most popular sport clubs are the association football club Paris Saint-Germain FC, the basketball team Paris-Levallois Basket, and the rugby union club Stade Français. The 80,000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located in Saint-Denis. It is used for football, rugby union and track and field athletics. It hosts annually French national rugby team's home matches of the Six Nations Championship, French national association football team for friendlies and major tournaments qualifiers, and several important matches of the Stade Français rugby team. In addition to Paris Saint-Germain FC, the city has a number of other amateur football clubs: Paris FC, Red Star, RCF Paris and Stade Français Paris. The last is the football section of the omnisport club of the same name, most notable for its rugby team. The Paris region currently boasts two teams in the top level of French rugby union, Top 14. Currently, the most prominent side is Stade Français, which is also the only one of the two to be based in the city proper. The other Top 14 team in the region is Racing Métro 92, currently based in the western suburb of Colombes. Racing Métro is the successor to Racing Club de France, which contested the first-ever French championship final against Stade Français in 1892. Paris also hosted the 1900 and 1924 Olympic Games and was venue for the 1938 and 1998 FIFA World Cups and for the 2007 Rugby World Cup.[88] Although the starting point and the route of the famous Tour de France varies each year, the final stage always finishes in Paris, and, since 1975, the race has finished on the Champs-Elysées.[89] Tennis is another popular sport in Paris and throughout France; the French Open, held every year on the red clay of the Roland Garros National Tennis Centre near the Bois de Boulogne,[90] is one of the four Grand Slam events of the world professional tennis tour. The 2006 UEFA Champions League Final between Arsenal and FC Barcelona was played in the Stade de France.[91] Paris hosted the 2007 Rugby World Cup final at Stade de France on 20 October 2007.[88] Economy [edit]Main article: Economy of Paris
With a 2011 GDP of €607 billion[5] (US$845 billion), the Paris region has one of the highest GDPs in the world,[92] after Tokyo, New York and Los Angeles, making it an engine of the global economy; were it a country, it would rank as the seventeenth-largest economy in the world, larger than the Turkish and Dutch economies and almost as large as the Indonesian economy.[93] The Paris Region is France's premier centre of economic activity. While its population accounted for 18.8% of the total population of metropolitan France in 2011,[94] its GDP accounted for 31.0% of metropolitan France's GDP.[5] Activity in the Paris urban area, though diverse, does not have a leading specialised industry (such as Los Angeles with entertainment industries or London and New York with financial industries in addition to their other activities). Recently, the Paris economy has been shifting towards high-value-added service industries (finance, IT services, etc.) and high-tech manufacturing (electronics, optics, aerospace, etc.). However, in the 2009 European Green City Index, Paris was still listed as the second most "green" large city in Europe, after Berlin.[95] The Paris region's most intense economic activity through the central Hauts-de-Seine département and suburban La Défense business district places Paris' economic centre to the west of the city, in a triangle between the Opéra Garnier, La Défense and the Val de Seine. Paris' administrative borders have little consequences on the limits of its economic activity: Although most workers commute from the suburbs to work in the city, many commute from the city to work in the suburbs. While the Paris economy is largely dominated by services, it remains an important manufacturing powerhouse of Europe, especially in industrial sectors such as automobiles, aeronautics, and electronics. Over recent decades, the local economy has moved towards high-value-added activities, in particular business services. Paris is the first in Europe in terms of research and development capability and expenditure[84] and is considered one of the best cities in the world for innovation.[96] The Paris Region hosts the headquarters of 33 of the Fortune Global 500 companies.[97] The 1999 census indicated that, of the 5,089,170 persons employed in the Paris urban area, 16.5% worked in business services; 13.0% in commerce (retail and wholesale trade); 12.3% in manufacturing; 10.0% in public administrations and defence; 8.7% in health services; 8.2% in transportation and communications; 6.6% in education, and the remaining 24.7% in many other economic sectors. In the manufacturing sector, the largest employers were the electronic and electrical industry (17.9% of the total manufacturing workforce in 1999) and the publishing and printing industry (14.0% of the total manufacturing workforce), with the remaining 68.1% of the manufacturing workforce distributed among many other industries. Tourism and tourist related services employ 6.2% of Paris' workforce, and 3.6% of all workers within the Paris Region.[98] Unemployment in the Paris "immigrant ghettos" ranges from 20 to 40%, according to varying sources.[99] Health [edit]Health care and emergency medical service in the city of Paris and its suburbs are provided by the Assistance publique - Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), a public hospital system that employs more than 90,000 people (including practitioners, support personnel, and administrators) in 44 hospitals.[101] It is the largest hospital system in Europe. It provides health care, teaching, research, prevention, education and emergency medical service in 52 branches of medicine. It employs more than 90,000 people (including 15,800 physicians) in 44 hospitals and receives more than 5.8 million annual patient visits.[101] One of the most notable hospitals is the Hôtel-Dieu, founded in 651, the oldest hospital in the city.[102] Sociology [edit]Main articles: Rive Droite (Paris) and Rive Gauche (Paris)
Paris is richer than the rest of France, with a 2010 median income by consumption unit of 25,000 €, against 22,000 € For the whole Île-de-France region and 18,750 € for Metropolitan France. However, prices are also 13% higher in Île-de-France than in the rest of France, mostly because of real estate,[103] and income inequalities are high. At 0.49, Paris' Gini coefficient is the second highest in France after Neuilly-sur-Seine.[104] Wealth is heavily concentrated in the Western part of Paris proper, and in Western suburbs, notably Neuilly-sur-Seine,[105] and rents are generally much higher on the western side. This mirrors a sharp political divide, with political conservatism being much more common towards the western edge, whilst the political spectrum lies more to the left in the east.[106] Paris is the département with the highest proportion of highly-educated people. In 2009, around 40% of Parisians hold a diploma licence-level diploma or higher, the highest proportion in France,[107] while 13% have no diploma, the third lowest percentage in France. La Rive Droite (French pronunciation: [la ʁiv dʁwat], The Right Bank) is most associated with the river Seine in central Paris. Here the river flows roughly westwards, cutting the city into two: looking downstream, the northern bank is to the right, and the southern bank (or Rive Gauche) is to the left.[108] Demographics [edit]
Main article: Demographics of Paris
The population of the city of Paris was 2,125,246 at the 1999 census, lower than its historical peak of 2.9 million in 1921. The city's population loss mirrors the experience of most other core cities in the developed world that have not expanded their boundaries. The principal factors in the process are a significant decline in household size, and a dramatic migration of residents to the suburbs between 1962 and 1975. Factors in the migration include de-industrialisation, high rent, the gentrification of many inner quarters, the transformation of living space into offices, and greater affluence among working families. The city's population loss was one of the most severe among international municipalities and the largest for any that had achieved more than 2,000,000 residents. These losses are generally seen as negative for the city; the city administration is trying to reverse them with some success, as the population estimate of July 2004 showed a population increase for the first time since 1954, reaching a total of 2,144,700 inhabitants, which reached 2,234,000 by 2009.[2] Density [edit]Paris is one of the most densely populated cities in the world. Its density, excluding the outlying woodland parks of Boulogne and Vincennes, was 24,448 inhabitants per square kilometre (63,320/sq mi) in the 1999 official census, which could be compared only with some Asian megapolises and the New York City borough of Manhattan. Even including the two woodland areas, its population density was 20,164 inhabitants per square kilometre (52,224.5/sq mi), the fifth-most-densely populated commune in France following Le Pré-Saint-Gervais, Vincennes, Levallois-Perret, and Saint-Mandé, all of which border the city proper. The most sparsely populated quarters are the western and central office and administration-focused arrondissements. The city's population is densest in the northern and eastern arrondissements; the 11th arrondissement had a density of 40,672 inhabitants per square kilometre (105,340/sq mi) in 1999, and some of the same arrondissement's eastern quarters had densities close to 100,000/km2 (260,000/sq mi) in the same year.[109] Paris agglomeration [edit]The city of Paris covers an area much smaller than the urban area of which it is the core. At present, Paris' real urbanisation, defined by the pôle urbain (urban area) statistical area, covers 2,845 km2 (1,098 sq mi),[110] or an area about 27 times larger than the city itself. The administration of Paris' urban growth is divided between itself and its surrounding départements: Paris' closest ring of three adjoining departments, or petite couronne ("small ring") are fully saturated with urban growth, and the ring of four departments outside of these, the grande couronne départements, are only covered in their inner regions by Paris' urbanisation. These eight départements form the larger administrative Île-de-France région; most of this region is filled, and overextended in places, by the Paris aire urbaine, which, in 2010, was populated by over 12 million people.[4] The Paris agglomeration has shown a steady rate of growth since the end of the late 16th century French Wars of Religion, save brief setbacks during the French Revolution and World War II. Suburban development has accelerated in recent years: With an estimated total of 11.4 million inhabitants for 2005, the Île-de-France région shows a rate of growth double that of the 1990s.[111][112] Immigration [edit]By law, French censuses do not ask questions regarding ethnicity or religion, but do gather information concerning one's country of birth. From this it is still possible to determine that Paris and its aire urbaine (metropolitan area) is one of the most multi-cultural in Europe: At the 1999 census, 19.4% of its total population was born outside of metropolitan France.[113] At the same census, 4.2% of the Paris aire urbaine's population were recent immigrants (people who had immigrated to France between 1990 and 1999),[114] the majority from Asia and Africa.[115] 37% of all immigrants in France live in the Paris region.[99] The first wave of international migration to Paris started as early as 1820 with the arrivals of German peasants fleeing an agricultural crisis in their homeland. Several waves of immigration followed continuously until today: Italians and central European Jews during the 19th century; Russians after the revolution of 1917 and Armenians fleeing genocide in the Ottoman Empire;[116] colonial citizens during World War I and later; Poles between the two world wars; Spaniards, Italians, Portuguese, and North Africans from the 1950s to the 1970s; North African Jews after the independence of those countries; Africans and Asians since then.[117] The Paris metropolitan region or "aire urbaine" is estimated to be home to some 1.7 million Muslims, making up between 10%–15% of the area's population. However, without official data, the margin of error of these estimates is extremely high as it is based on one's country of birth (someone born in a Muslim country or born to a parent from a Muslim country is considered as a "potential Muslim").[118] According to the North American Jewish Data Bank, an estimated 310,000 Jews also live in Paris and the surrounding Île-de-France region, an area with a population of 11.7 million inhabitants. Paris has historically been a magnet for immigrants, hosting one of the largest concentrations of immigrants in Europe today.[119][120][121] Immigrants and their children in départements of Île-de-France (Greater Paris) [edit]According to INSEE, French National Institute for Statistics and Economic Studies, responsible for the production and analysis of official statistics in France, 20% of people living in the city of Paris are immigrants and 41.3% of people under 20 have at least one immigrant parent.[122] Among the young people under 18, 12.1% are of Maghrebi origin, 9.9% of Subsaharan African origin and 4.0% of South European origin.[123] About four million people, or 35% of the population of the Île-de-France, are either immigrants (17%) or have at least one immigrant parent (18%).[124] According to a study in 2008, nearly 56% of all newborns in Île-de-France in 2007 had at least one parent of immigrant origin.[125]
(source : Insee, EAR 2006) Reading: 436 576 immigrants live in Paris, representing 20% of Parisians and 22.4% of immigrants in Île-de-France. 162 635 children under 20 with at least one immigrant parent live in Paris, representing 41.3% of the total of children under 20 in Paris and 15.4% of the total of children under 20 with at least one immigrant parent in Île-de-France. Administration [edit]Paris, its administrative limits unchanged since 1860 (save for the addition of two large parks), is one of a few cities that have not evolved politically with their real demographic growth; this issue is at present being discussed in plans for a "Grand Paris" (Greater Paris) which could extend Paris' administrative limits to embrace much more of its urban tissue.[126] Capital of France [edit]Paris is the seat of France's national government. For the executive, the two chief officers each have their own official residences, which also serve as their offices. The President of France resides at the Élysée Palace in the 8th arrondissement, while the Prime Minister's seat is at the Hôtel Matignon in the 7th arrondissement. Government ministries are located in various parts of the city; many are located in the 7th arrondissement, near the Matignon. The two houses of the French Parliament are also located on the Left Bank. The upper house, the Senate, meets in the Palais du Luxembourg in the 6th arrondissement, while the more important lower house, the Assemblée Nationale, meets in the Palais Bourbon in the 7th. The President of the Senate, the second-highest public official in France after the President of the Republic, resides in the "Petit Luxembourg", a smaller palace annex to the Palais du Luxembourg.[127] France's highest courts are located in Paris. The Court of Cassation, the highest court in the judicial order, which reviews criminal and civil cases, is located in the Palais de Justice on the Île de la Cité,[128] while the Conseil d'État, which provides legal advice to the executive and acts as the highest court in the administrative order, judging litigation against public bodies, is located in the Palais Royal in the 1st arrondissement.[129] The Constitutional Council, an advisory body with ultimate authority on the constitutionality of laws and government decrees, also meets in the Montpensier wing of the Palais Royal.[130] City government [edit]Main articles: Paris mayors and Arrondissements of Paris
Paris has been a commune (municipality) since 1834 (and also briefly between 1790 and 1795). At the 1790 division (during the French Revolution) of France into communes, and again in 1834, Paris was a city only half its modern size, but, in 1860, it annexed bordering communes, some entirely, to create the new administrative map of twenty municipal arrondissements the city still has today. These municipal subdivisions describe a clockwise spiral outward from its most central, the 1st arrondissement. In 1790, Paris became the préfecture (seat) of the Seine département, which covered much of the Paris region. In 1968, it was split into four smaller ones: The city of Paris became a distinct département of its own, retaining the Seine's departmental number of 75 (originating from the Seine département's position in France's alphabetical list), while three new départements of Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis and Val-de-Marne were created and given the numbers 92, 93, and 94, respectively. The result of this division is that today Paris' limits as a département are exactly those of its limits as a commune, a situation unique in France.[citation needed] Municipal offices [edit]Each of Paris' twenty arrondissements has a directly elected council (conseil d'arrondissement), which, in turn, elects an arrondissement mayor. A selection of members from each arrondissement council form the Council of Paris (conseil de Paris), which, in turn, elects the mayor of Paris. In medieval times, Paris was governed by a merchant-elected municipality whose head was the provost of the merchants. In addition to regulating city commerce, the provost of the merchants was responsible for some civic duties such as the guarding of city walls and the cleaning of city streets. The creation of the provost of Paris from the 13th century diminished the merchant Provost's responsibilities and powers considerably.
A direct representative of the king, in a role resembling somewhat the préfet of later years, the Provost (prévôt) of Paris oversaw the application and execution of law and order in the city and its surrounding prévôté (county) from his office in the Grand Châtelet. Many functions from both provost offices were transferred to the office of the crown-appointed lieutenant general of police upon its creation in 1667. For centuries, the prévôt and magistrates of the Châtelet clashed with the administrators of the Hôtel de Ville over jurisdiction;[131] the latter notably included the quartiniers, each of whom was responsible for one of the sixteen quartiers (which were in turn divided into fourcinquantaines, each with its cinquantainier, and those in turn were divided into dizaines, administered bydizainiers):
Even though in the course of the 18th century these elections became purely ceremonial, choosing candidates already selected by the royal government, the memory of genuine municipal independence remained strong: "The Hôtel de Ville continued to bulk large in the awareness of bourgeois Parisians, its importance extending far beyond its real role in city government."[133] Paris' last Prévôt des marchands was assassinated the afternoon of the 14 July 1789 uprising that was the French Revolution Storming of the Bastille. Paris became an official "commune" from the creation of the administrative division on 14 December the same year, and its provisional "Paris commune" revolutionary municipality was replaced with the city's first municipal constitution and government from 9 October 1790.[134] Through the turmoil of the 1794 Thermidorian Reaction, it became apparent that revolutionary Paris' political independence was a threat to any governing power: The office of mayor was abolished the same year, and its municipal council one year later.
The Hôtel de Ville, Paris (town hall)
Although the municipal council was recreated in 1834, for most of the 19th and 20th centuries, Paris — along with the larger Seine département of which it was a centre — was under the direct control of the state-appointed préfet of the Seine, in charge of general affairs there; the state-appointed Prefect of Police was in charge of police in the same jurisdiction. Save for a few brief occasions, the city did not have a mayor until 1977, and the Paris Prefecture of Police is still under state control today. Despite its dual existence as commune and département, Paris has a single council to govern both; the Council of Paris, presided over by the mayor of Paris, meets as either as a municipal council (conseil municipal) or a departmental council (conseil général), depending on the issue to be debated. Paris' modern administrative organisation still retains some traces of the former Seine département jurisdiction. The Prefecture of Police (also directing Paris' fire brigades), for example, has still a jurisdiction extending to Paris' petite couronne of bordering three départements for some operations such as fire protection or rescue operations, and is still directed by France's national government. Paris has no municipal police force, although it does have its own brigade of traffic wardens. Capital of the Île-de-France région [edit]
Departments of Île-de-France.
As part of a 1961 nation-wide administrative effort to consolidate regional economies, Paris as a département became the capital of the new région of the District of Paris, renamed the Île-de-France région in 1976. It encompasses the Paris département and its seven closest départements. Its regional council members, since 1986, have been chosen by direct elections. The prefect of the Paris département (who served as the prefect of the Seine département before 1968) is also prefect of the Île-de-France région, although the office lost much of its power following the creation of the office of mayor of Paris in 1977. Intercommunality [edit]Few of the above changes have taken into account Paris' existence as an agglomeration. Unlike in most of France's major urban areas such as Lille and Lyon, there is no intercommunal entity in the Paris urban area, no intercommunal council treating the problems of the region's dense urban core as a whole; Paris' alienation of its suburbs is indeed a problem today, and considered by many[who?] to be the main causes of civil unrest such as the suburban riots in 2005. A direct result of these unfortunate events is propositions for a more efficient metropolitan structure to cover the city of Paris and some of the suburbs, ranging from a socialist idea of a loose "metropolitan conference" (conférence métropolitaine) to the right-wing idea of a more integrated Grand Paris ("Greater Paris"). One of the main reasons for such incoherence has been the fear felt by the French State in front of such a huge agglomeration and the desire to tap its wealth.[citation needed] Since the Middle Ages and particularly since the 1649 troubles (La Fronde), Paris has been considered as a source of danger. The authoritarian king Louis the XIVth built Versailles as a new political center, away from the dangerous city crowds. The conflict between the State and the City reached a climax with the Revolution of 1871 (La Commune) : the French Assembly in Bordeaux decided Paris would no longer be the capital city, while the Paris Commune discussed declaring Paris independent of France. Since then, one of the foundations of the centralized French State has been to widely distribute Paris wealth while depriving the agglomeration and keeping it divided into 8 departments and 1 200 communes. (For an analysis of the long hostility against Paris, see [1][verification needed] ). Of the 22 metropolitan French regions, 19 are regularly subsidized — mostly by Paris resources — while Paris suburbs lack necessary equipment. Education [edit]In the early 9th century, the emperor Charlemagne mandated all churches to give lessons in reading, writing and basic arithmetic to their parishes, and cathedrals to give a higher-education in the finer arts of language, physics, music, and theology; at that time, Paris was already one of France's major cathedral towns and beginning its rise to fame as a scholastic centre. By the early 13th century, the Île de la Cité Notre-Dame cathedral school had many famous teachers, and the controversial teachings of some of these led to the creation of a separate Left-Bank Sainte-Genevieve University that would become the centre of Paris' scholastic Latin Quarter best represented by the Sorbonne university. Twelve centuries later, education in Paris and the Paris region (Île-de-France région) employs approximately 330,000 persons, 170,000 of whom are teachers and professors teaching approximately 2.9 million children and students in around 9,000 primary, secondary, and higher education schools and institutions.[135]
The Lycée Louis-le-Grand.
Primary and secondary education [edit]Paris is home to several of France's most prestigious high-schools such as Lycée Louis-le-Grand, Lycée Henri-IV, Lycée Janson de Sailly and Lycée Condorcet. Other high-schools of international renown in the Paris area include the Lycée International de Saint Germain-en-Laye and the École Active Bilingue Jeannine Manuel. Higher-education [edit]As of the academic year 2004–2005, the Paris Region's 17 public universities, with its 359,749 registered students,[136] comprise the largest concentration of university students in Europe.[137] The Paris Region's prestigious grandes écoles and scores of university-independent private and public schools have an additional 240,778 registered students, that, together with the university population, creates a grand total of 600,527 students in higher education that year.[136] Universities [edit]The cathedral of Notre-Dame was the first centre of higher-education before the creation of the University of Paris. The universitas was chartered by King Philip Augustus in 1200, as a corporation granting teachers (and their students) the right to rule themselves independently from crown law and taxes. At the time, many classes were held in open air. Non-Parisian students and teachers would stay in hostels, or "colleges", created for the boursiers coming from afar. Already famous by the 13th century, the University of Paris had students from all of Europe. Paris' Rive Gauchescholastic centre, dubbed "Latin Quarter" as classes were taught in Latin then, would eventually regroup around the college created by Robert de Sorbon from 1257, the Collège de Sorbonne. The University of Paris in the 19th century had six faculties: law, science, medicine, pharmaceutical studies, literature, and theology. Following the 1968 student riots, there was an extensive reform of the University of Paris, in an effort to disperse the centralised student body. The following year, the former unique University of Paris was split between thirteen autonomous universities ("Paris I" to "Paris XIII") located throughout the City of Paris and its suburbs. Each of these universities inherited only some of the departments of the old University of Paris, and are not generalist universities. Paris I Pantheon-Sorbonne, Paris II Pantheon-Assas, Paris-Descartes, and Paris-Nanterre, inherited the Law School; Paris Descartes University inherited the School of Medicine as well; Pierre and Marie Curie University and Paris-Diderot the scientific departments, the Paris-Sorbonne University inherited the Arts and Humanities, etc. In 1991, four more universities were created in the suburbs of Paris, reaching a total of seventeen public universities for the Paris (Île-de-France) région. These new universities were given names (based on the name of the suburb in which they are located) and not numbers like the previous thirteen: University of Cergy-Pontoise, University of Évry Val d'Essonne, University of Marne-la-Vallée, École supérieure Robert De Sorbon and University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines. Grandes écoles [edit]The Paris region hosts France's highest concentration of the prestigious grandes écoles – specialised centres of higher-education outside the public university structure. The prestigious public universities are usually considered grands établissements. Most of the grandes écoles were relocated to the suburbs of Paris in the 1960s and 1970s, in new campuses much larger than the old campuses within the crowded city of Paris, though the École Normale Supérieure has remained on rue d'Ulm in the 5th arrondissement. The Paris area hosts 55 grandes écoles, including a high number of engineering schools, led by the prestigious Paris Institute of Technology (ParisTech) which comprises several colleges such as École Polytechnique, École des Mines, AgroParisTech, Télécom Paris, Arts et Métiers, and École des Ponts et Chaussées. There are also many business schools, including INSEAD, ESSEC, HEC and ESCP Europe. The administrative school such as ENA has been relocated to Strasbourg, the political science school Sciences-Po is still located in Paris' Left bank 7th arrondissement. The Parisian school of journalism CELSA department of the Paris-Sorbonne University is located in Neuilly-sur-Seine. The grandes écoles system is supported by a number of preparatory schools that offer courses of two to three years' duration called Classes Préparatoires, also known as classes prépas or simply prépas. These courses provide entry to the grandes écoles. Many of the best prépas are located in Paris, including Lycée Louis-le-Grand, Lycée Henri-IV, Lycée Saint-Louis, Lycée Janson de Sailly, and Lycée Stanislas.[138] Two other top-ranking prépas (Lycée Hoche and Lycée privé Sainte-Geneviève) are located in Versailles, near Paris. Student selection is based on school grades and teacher remarks. Prépas are known to be very demanding in terms of work load and psychological stress.[citation needed] Libraries [edit]The Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF) operates libraries in Paris, among them François-Mitterrand Library, Richelieu Library, Louvois, Opéra Library, and Arsenal Library.[139] The American Library in Paris opened in 1920. It is a part of a private, non-profit organization.[140] The modern library originated from cases of books sent by the American Library Association to U.S. soldiers in France.[141] An incarnation existed in the 1850s.[142] Transport [edit]Main article: Transport in Paris
See also: List of railway stations in Paris
The Gare du Nord train station is the busiest in Europe
Paris is a major rail, highway, and air transportation hub. Four international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle, Paris-Orly, Paris-Le Bourget and Beauvais-Tillé, serve the city. Paris has been building its transportation system throughout history and continuous improvements are on-going. The Syndicat des transports d'Île-de-France (STIF), formerly Syndicat des transports parisiens (STP) oversees the transit network in the region.[143] The members of this syndicate are the Île-de-France region and the eight departments of this region. The syndicate coordinates public transport and contracts it out to the RATP (operating 654 bus lines, the Métro, three tramway lines, and sections of the RER), the SNCF (operating suburban rails, one tramway line and the other sections of the RER) and the Optile consortium of private operators managing 1,070 minor bus lines. The city's subway system, the métro, was opened in 1900 and is the most widely used transportation system within the city proper. It comprises 300 stations (384 stops) connected by 214 km (133.0 mi) of rails, and 16 lines, identified by numbers from 1 to 14, with two minor lines, 3bis and 7bis, so numbered because they used to be branches of their respective original lines, and only later became independent. In October 1998, the new line 14 was inaugurated after a 70 year hiatus in inaugurating fully new métro lines. Because of the short distance between stations on the Métro network, lines were too slow to be extended further into the suburbs, as is the case in most other cities. As such, an additional express network, the RER, has been created since the 1960s to connect more-distant parts of the urban area. The RER consists in the integration of modern city-centre subway and pre-existing suburban rail. Nowadays, the RER network comprises five lines, 257 stops and 587 km (365 mi) of rails. Over €26.5 billion will be invested over the next 15 years to extend the métro network into the suburbs.[52] In addition, the Paris region is served by a light rail network of four lines, the tramway: Line T1 runs from Saint-Denis to Noisy-le-Sec, line T2 runs from La Défense to Porte de Versailles, line T3 runs from Pont du Garigliano to Porte d'Ivry, all of which are run by the Régie Autonome des Transports Parisiens,[144] and line T4 runs from Bondy to Aulnay-sous-Bois, which is operated by the state rail carrier SNCF. Six new light rail lines are currently in various stages of development. Paris is a central hub of the national rail network. The seven major railway stations — Gare du Nord, Gare Montparnasse, Gare de l'Est, Gare de Lyon, Gare d'Austerlitz, Gare Saint-Lazare and Gare de Bercy — are connected to three networks: The TGV serving four High-speed rail lines, the normal speed Corail trains, and the suburban rails (Transilien).
Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport, the busiest of Paris' airports
Paris is served by two major airports: Orly Airport, which is south of Paris; and the Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport, in Roissy-en-France, which is one of the busiest in the world and is the hub for the unofficial flag carrier Air France. A third and much smaller airport, Beauvais Tillé Airport, located in the town of Beauvais, 70 km (43 mi) to the north of the city, is used by charter and low-cost airlines. The fourth airport, Le Bourget, nowadays hosts only business jets, air trade shows and the aerospace museum. The city is also the most important hub of France's motorway network, and is surrounded by three orbital freeways: the Périphérique, which follows the approximate path of 19th-century fortifications around Paris, the A86 motorway in the inner suburbs, and finally the Francilienne motorway in the outer suburbs. Paris has an extensive road network with over 2,000 km (1,243 mi) of highways and motorways. By road, Brussels can be reached in three hours, Frankfurt in six hours and Barcelona in 12 hours. By train, London is now just two hours and 15 minutes away, Brussels can be reached in 1 hour and 22 minutes (up to 26 departures/day), Amsterdam in 3 hours and 18 minutes (up to 10 departures/day), Cologne in 3 hours and 14 minutes (6 departures/day), and Marseille, Bordeaux, and other cities in southern France in three hours. The Paris region is the most active water transportation area in France, with most of the cargo handled by the Autonomous Port of Paris in facilities located around Paris. The Loire, Rhine, Rhone, Meuse and Scheldt rivers can be reached by canals connecting with the Seine, which include the Canal Saint-Martin, Canal Saint-Denis, and the Canal de l'Ourcq.[145] Cycling [edit]Main article: Cycling in Paris
There are 440 km (270 mi) of cycle paths and routes in Paris. These include piste cyclable (bike lanes separated from other traffic by physical barriers such as a kerb) and bande cyclable (a bicycle lane denoted by a painted path on the road). Also since 2008, 29 km (18 mi) of specially marked bus lanes are free to be used by cyclists.[146] Cyclists have also been given the right to ride in both directions on certain one-way streets. Paris offers a bike sharing system called Vélib' with more than 20,000 public bicycles distributed at 1,800 parking stations, which can be rented for short and medium distances including one way trips.[147] International relations [edit]Paris and its region host the headquarters of many international organisations including UNESCO, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the International Chamber of Commerce, the Paris Club, the European Space Agency, the International Energy Agency, the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, the European Union Institute for Security Studies, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, the International Exhibition Bureau and the International Federation for Human Rights. Paris is today one of the world's leading business[148] and cultural[149] centres and its influences in politics, education, entertainment, media, science, and the arts all contribute to its status as one of the world's major global cities.[150] Paris has numerous partner cities,[151][152] but according to the motto "Only Paris is worthy of Rome; only Rome is worthy of Paris.",[151][153][154] the only sister city of Paris is Rome and vice-versa. See also [edit]
References [edit]Footnotes [edit]
Bibliography [edit]
Further reading [edit]
External links [edit]
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