طنز
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طَنز،[۱] هنری است که عدم تناسبات در عرصههای مختلف اجتماعی را که در ظاهر متناسب به نظر میرسند، نشان میدهد و این خود مایه خنده میشود. هنر طنزپرداز، کشف و بیان هنرمندانه و زیباییشناختی عدم تناسب در این «متناسبات» است.
ریشهٔ واژه [ویرایش]طنز واژهای عربی است و در واژه به معنای مسخره کردن، طعنه زدن، عیب کردن، سخن به رموز گفتن و به استهزا از کسی سخن گفتن است. معادل انگلیسی طنز satire است که از satira در لاتین گرفته شده که از ریشه satyros یونانی است. satira نام ظرفی پر از میوههای متنوع بود که به یکی از خدایان کشاورزی هدیه داده شده بود و به معنای واژگانی «غذای کامل» یا «آمیختهای از هرچیز» بود.[۲] تفاوت طنز با هجو و کمدی [ویرایش]از اقسام هجو است اما تفاوت در این است که آن تندی و تیزی و صراحت هجو در طنز نیست. وانگهی در طنز معمولاً مقاصد اصلاح طلبانه و اجتماعی مطرح است طنز کاستن از مقام و کیفیت کسی یا چیزی است به نحوی که باعث خنده و سرگرمی شود و گاهی در آن تحقیری باشد. بین طنز و کمدی هم البته فرق است. در کمدی معمولاً خنده به خاطر خنده مطرح است، اما در طنز خنده برای استهزاء است. بدین ترتیب طنز وسیله است نه هدف. در طنز کسی که مورد انتقاد قرار می گیرد ممکن است یک فرد خاص باشد یا یک تیپ یا یک طبقه یا ملّت و حتی یک نژاد. گاهی نویسنده قهرمان اثر را به سخره می گیرد، اما مراد او کسی یا کسانی بیرون از اثر ادبی است و بدین منظور حتی ممکن است از خود بدگوئی کند.[۳] تعریف اصطلاح [ویرایش]در ادبیات طنز به نوع خاصی از آثار منظوم یا منثور ادبی گفته میشود که اشتباهات یا جنبههای نامطلوب رفتار بشری، فسادهای اجتماعی و سیاسی یا حتی تفکرات فلسفی را به شیوهای خنده دار به چالش میکشد.[۴] دکتر جانسون طنز را این گونه معنی میکند: «شعری که در آن شرارت و حماقت سانسور شده باشد.»[۶] به کار بردن کلمه طنز برای انتقادی که به صورت خنده آور و مضحک بیان شود در فارسی معاصر سابقه زیاد طولانی ندارد. هرچند که طنز در تاریخ بیهقی و دیگر دیگر آثار قدیم زبان فارسی به کار رفته، ولی استعمال وسیعی به معنای satire اروپایی نداشتهاست. در فارسی، عربی و ترکی کلمه واحدی که دقیقاً این معنی را در هر سه زبان برساند وجود نداشتهاست. سابقاً در فارسی هجو به کار میرفت که بیشتر جنبه انتقاد مستقیم و شخصی دارد و جنبه غیر مستقیم ساتیر را ندارد و اغلب آموزنده و اجتماعی هم نیست. در فارسی هزل را نیز به کار بردهاند که ضد جد است و بیشتر جنبه مزاح و مطایبه دارد.[۷] ماهیت طنز [ویرایش]طنز تفکر برانگیز است و ماهیتی پیچیده و چند لایه دارد. گرچه طبیعتش بر خنده استوار است، اما خنده را تنها وسیلهای میانگارد برای نیل به هدفی برتر و آگاه کردن انسان به عمق رذالتها. گرچه در ظاهر میخنداند، اما در پس این خنده واقعیتی تلخ و وحشتناک وجود دارد که در عمق وجود، خنده را میخشکاند و انسان را به تفکر وا میدارد. به همین خاطر در باره طنز گفتهاند: «طنز یعنی گریه کردن قاه قاه، طنز یعنی خنده کردن آه آه.»[۸] طنز در ذات خود انسان را برمی آشوبد، بر تردیدهایش میافزاید و با آشکار ساختن جهان همچون پدیدهای دوگانه، چندگانه یا متناقض، انسانها را از یقین محروم میکند. جان درایدن در مقاله «هنر طنز» ظرافت طنز را به جدا کردن سر از بدن با حرکت تند و سریع شمشیر تشبیه میکند، طوری که دوباره در جای خود قرار گیرد.[۹] طنز در ادبیات کلاسیک و مدرن جهان [ویرایش]_-_pag._12.JPG?match=en)
در میان شاعران یونان و روم، شعرهای طنز آرخیلوخوس، هیپوناکس، آریستوفان، لوسیلیوس، هوراس و جوونال قدیمیترین نمونه هاست. در ادبیات قرون وسطای انگلیس از قصههای کنتربری اثر جفری چاسر و منظومه رویای پیرس شخم کار اثر ویلیام لاگلند میتوان نام برد. در دوران رنسانس رابله، سروانتس و لوییجی پولچی مشهور طنزپردازان هستند. آثار طنز ابتدا به صورت شعر بود و بعدها شیوههای روایی را هم در بر گرفت. امروزه در ادبیات جهان، مشهورترین طنزنویسان، نثرنویسانی چون سروانتس، رابله، ولتر، جوناتان سویفت، هنری فیلدینگ، جوزف آدیسون، ویلیام تکری، مارک تواین، جرج اورول، جوزف هلر، سینکلر لوئیس، جان چیور و آلدوس هاکسلی هستند.[۱۰] طنز در ادبیات فارسی [ویرایش]در ادبیات کلاسیک فارسی، طنز در میان آثار نویسندگان دورههای مختلف به اشکال گوناگون وجود داشت. در صدر این افراد، عبید زاکانی پدر هنر طنز در ادبیات فارسی است.[۱۱] شیوههای طنز [ویرایش]انواع آثار ادبی که طنز نویس میتواند به کار ببرد فوق العاده زیاد و متنوع است، رمان، نمایش نامه، شعر و... اما شیوهها یا تکنیکهایی که در آن به کار میرود محدود است. ۱. کوچک کردن ۲. بزرگ کردن ۳. تقلید مضحک از یک اثر ادبی شناخته شده ۴. ایجاد موقعیتی در داستان یا نمایش که به خودی خود طنزآمیز است. ۵. به کار بردن عین کلمات کسی که مورد طنز قرار میگیرد و ایجاد چهارچوبی مضحک برای آن.[۱۲] طنز و لطیفههای مکتوب [ویرایش]طنز یعنی بیان هنرمندانه و نقادانهٔ کژیها و نادرستیها به قصد اصلاح و نه تخریب. طنز فاخرترین گونهٔ شوخطبعیست، که گونههای دیگرش هزل و هجو و فکاههاند. لطیفهها عمدتاً از نوع فکاههاند؛ اما آنجا که رنگ و بوی تمسخر قومی یا شخصی خاص میگیرند، به هجو متمایل میشوند. جوک و لطیفه (طنز شفاهی) [ویرایش]این حقیقت که طنز در میان عامهاست، ادعای گزافی نیست. طنزی که در ادبیات عامه ماندگار شود، قطعاً قدرت بالایی دارد. طنزهای شفاهی بخش مهمی از ادبیات عامهاند. ماهیت طنز در خدمت رشد نظام توتالیتر [ویرایش]ما همیشه طنز را به عنوان چیزی خوب که واقعیت را به همه می نمایاند پذیرفته ایم.این یکی از بدیهی ترین تصورات ما نسبت به طنز است.ولی محمد هادی پورابراهیم در مقاله ای با عنوان طنز به مثابه هنر یا نهادی سرکوبگر از زاویه ای متفاوت به مقوله ی طنز نگاهی داشته و طنز را منحصر به جوامع سرکوبگر و توتالیتر پنداشته که راه دیگری برای دیالوگ و گفت و گو پیدا نمی کنند و صرفن با گفتن طنز موقعیت های دشوار را یکی پس از دیگری پشت سر می گذارند و هیچ وقت در پی یافتن راه حلی برای معضل برنخواهند آمد.چنین نگرشی به طنز چنان تازه و بدیع و خلاق است که تا به حال کسی از این دید به طنز نگاهی نداشته است. محمد هادی پورابراهیم که سالهاست دستی در نوشتن دارد و با مطالعه ی فراوان اکنون زبان شناسی قهار تلقی می شود در این مقاله و مقاله های دیگری که نوشته به موضوعات جالبی پرداخته که تا به حال کمتر کسی به آن فکر کرده است.این نویسنده و زبان شناس در این مقاله که در نشریه ی خوانش به چاپ رسیده است به بررسی طنز به عنوان نهادی سرکوبگر پرداخته است که خواندن این مقاله بسیار دلچسب و جالب می باشد. منابع [ویرایش]
پانویس [ویرایش]
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This article is about the genre. For the mythological creature, see satyr.
"Satires" redirects here. For other uses, see Satires (disambiguation).
Satire is a genre of literature, and sometimes graphic and performing arts, in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, ideally with the intent of shaming individuals, and society itself, into improvement.[1] Although satire is usually meant to be funny, its greater purpose is often constructive social criticism, using wit as a weapon. A common feature of satire is strong irony or sarcasm—"in satire, irony is militant"[2]—but parody, burlesque, exaggeration,[3] juxtaposition, comparison, analogy, and double entendre are all frequently used in satirical speech and writing. This "militant" irony or sarcasm often professes to approve of (or at least accept as natural) the very things the satirist wishes to attack. Satire is nowadays found in many artistic forms of expression, including literature, plays, commentary, and media such as lyrics.
Etymology and roots [edit]The word satire comes from the Latin word satur and the subsequent phrase lanx satura. Satur meant "full," but the juxtaposition with lanx shifted the meaning to "miscellany or medley": the expression lanx satura literally means "a full dish of various kinds of fruits."[4] The word satura as used by Quintilian, however, was used to denote only Roman verse satire, a strict genre that imposed hexameter form, a narrower genre than what would be later intended as satire.[4][5] Quintilian famously said that satura, that is a satire in hexameter verses, was a literary genre of wholly Roman origin (satura tota nostra est). He was aware of and commented on Greek satire, but at the time did not label it as such, although today the origin of satire is considered to be Aristophanes' Old Comedy. The first critic to use satire in the modern broader sense was Apuleius.[4] The derivation of satire from satura properly has nothing to do with the Greek mythological figure satyr.[6] To Quintilian, the satire was a strict literary form, but the term soon escaped from the original narrow definition. Robert Elliott writes:
Satire and humour [edit]Laughter is not an essential component of satire;[7] in fact there are types of satire that are not meant to be "funny" at all. Conversely, not all humour, even on such topics as politics, religion or art is necessarily "satirical", even when it uses the satirical tools of irony, parody, and burlesque. Even light-hearted satire has a serious "after-taste": the organizers of the Ig Nobel Prize describe this as "first make people laugh, and then make them think".[8] Social and psychological functions [edit]Satire and irony in some cases have been regarded as the most effective source to understand a society, the oldest form of social study.[9] They provide the keenest insights into a group's collective psyche, reveal its deepest values and tastes, and the society's structures of power.[10][11] Some authors have regarded satire as superior to non-comic and non-artistic disciplines like history or anthropology.[9][12][13] In a prominent example from Ancient Greece, philosopher Plato, when asked by a friend for a book to understand Athenian society, referred him to the plays of Aristophanes.[14][15] For its nature and social role, satire has enjoyed in many societies a special freedom license to mock prominent individuals and institutions.[16] The satiric impulse, and its ritualized expressions, carry out the function of resolving social tension.[17] Institutions like the ritual clowns, by giving expression to the antisocial tendencies, represent a safety valve which reestablishes equilibrium and health in the collective imaginary, which are jeopardized by the repressive aspects of society.[18][19] The state of political satire in a given country reflects the state of civil liberties and human rights. Under totalitarian regimes any criticism of a political system, and especially satire, is suppressed. A typical example is the Soviet Union where the dissidents, such as Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov were under strong pressure from the government. While satire of everyday life in the USSR was allowed, the most prominent satirist being Arkady Raikin, political satire existed in the form of anecdotes.[20] that made fun of Soviet political leaders, especially Brezhnev, famous for his narrow-mindness and love for awards and decorations. Classifications of Satire [edit]Satire is a diverse genre which is complex to classify and define, with a wide range of satiric "modes".[21][22] Horatian vs Juvenalian [edit]_-_pag._12.JPG)
Satirical literature can commonly be categorized as either Horatian or Juvenalian,[23][need quotation to verify] although the two are not entirely mutually exclusive. Horatian [edit]Horatian satire, named for the Roman satirist Horace (65–8 BCE), playfully criticizes some social vice through gentle, mild, and light-hearted humour. It directs wit, exaggeration, and self-deprecating humour toward what it identifies as folly, rather than evil. Horatian satire's sympathetic tone is common in modern society.[citation needed] Examples:
Juvenalian [edit]Juvenalian satire, named after the Roman satirist Juvenal (late 1st century – early 2nd century CE), is more contemptuous and abrasive than the Horatian. Juvenalian satire addresses social evil through scorn, outrage, and savage ridicule. This form is often pessimistic, characterized by irony, sarcasm, moral indignation and personal invective, with less emphasis on humor. Strongly polarized political satire is often Juvenalian. Also see: Satires of Juvenal. Examples:
Satire vs Teasing [edit]In the history of theatre there has always been a conflict between engagement and disengagement on politics and relevant issue, between satire and grotesque on one side, and jest with teasing on the other.[24] Max Eastman defined the spectrum of satire in terms of "degrees of biting," as ranging from satire proper at the hot-end, and "kidding" at the violet-end; Eastman adopted the term kidding to denote what is just satirical in form, but is not really firing at the target.[25] Nobel laureate satirical playwright Dario Fo pointed out the difference between satire and teasing (sfottò).[26] Teasing is the reactionary side of the comic, it limits itself to a shallow parody of physical appearance; the side-effect of teasing is that it humanizes and draws sympathy for the powerful individual towards which is directed. Satire instead uses the comic to go against power and its oppressions, has a subversive character, and a moral dimension which draws judgement against its targets.[27][29][30] Fo formulated an operational criteria to tell real satire from sfottò, saying that real satire arouses an outraged and violent reaction, and that the more they try to stop you, the better is the job you are doing.[31] Historically, people in positions of power have welcomed and encouraged good-humoured buffoonery, while have tried to censor, ostracize and repress satire.[24][32] Teasing (sfottò) is an ancient form of simple buffoonery, a form of comedy without satire's subversive edge. Teasing includes light and affectionate parody, good-humoured mockery, simple one-dimensional poking fun, benign spoofs. Teasing typically consists in an impersonation of someone monkeying around with his exterior attributes, tics, physical blemishes, voice and mannerisms, quirks, way of dressing and walking, the phrases he typically repeats. By contrast, teasing never touches on the core issue, never makes a serious criticism judging the target with irony; it never harms the target's conduct, ideology and position of power; it never undermines the perception of his morality and cultural dimension.[27][29] Sfottò directed towards a powerful individual, makes him appear more human and draws sympathy towards him.[33] Hermann Göring propagated jests and jokes against himself, with the aim of humanizing his image.[34][35] Classifications by topics [edit]Types of satire can also be classified according to the topics it deals with. From the earliest times, at least since the plays of Aristophanes, the primary topics of literary satire are politics, religion and sex.[36][37][38] On one hand because these are the most pressing problems that affect anybody living in a society, and on the other hand because these topics are usually taboo, considered sacred and off-limits by social etiquette.[36][39] Among these, politics in the broader sense is considered the pre-eminent topic of satire.[39] Satire which targets the clergy is a type of political satire, while religious satire is that which targets religious beliefs.[40] Satire on sex may overlap with blue comedy, off-color humor and dick jokes. Scatology has a long literary association with satire.[36][41][42] The use of scatology is closely related to the grotesque and what is sometimes called the satiric grotesque.[36] Shit plays a fundamental role in satire because it symbolizes death, the turd being "the ultimate dead object."[41][42] The satirical comparison of individuals or institutions with shit, exposes their "inherent inertness, corruption and dead-likeness."[41] Satire about death overlaps with black humor, gallows humor. Another classification by topics, is the distinction between political satire, religious satire and satire of manners.[43] Political satire is sometimes called topical satire, satire of manners is sometimes called satire of everyday life, and religious satire is sometimes called philosophical satire. Comedy of manners, sometimes also called satire of manners, criticizes mode of life of common people; political satire aims at behavior, manners of politicians, and vices of political systems; philosophical satire has as its object global vices inherent to mankind.[citation needed] Historically, Comedy of manners, which first appeared in British theater in 1620, has uncritically accepted the social code of the upper classes.[44] Comedy in general accepts the rules of the social game, while satire subverts them.[45] Another analysis of satire is the spectrum of his possible tones: wit, ridicule, irony, sarcasm, cynicism, the sardonic and invective.[46][47] Classifications by medium [edit]Satire is found not only in written literary forms. In preliterate cultures it manifests itselfs in ritual and folk forms, as well as in trickster tales and oral poetry.[17] It appears also in graphic arts, music, sculpture, dance, cartoon strips, graffiti. Examples are Dada sculptures, Pop Art works, music of Gilbert and Sullivan and Erik Satie, punk and rock music.[17] In modern media culture, stand-up comedy is an enclave in which satire can be introduced into mass media, challenging mainstream discourse.[17] Comedy roasts, mock festivals, and stand-up comedians in nightclubs and concerts, are the modern forms of ancient satiric rituals.[17] Development [edit]Ancient Egypt [edit] 
One of the earliest examples of what we might call satire, The Satire of the Trades,[48] is in Egyptian writing from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. The text's apparent readers are students, tired of studying. It argues that their lot as scribes is useful, and their lot far superior to that of the ordinary man. Scholars such as Helck[49] think that the context was meant to be serious. The Papyrus Anastasi I[50] (late 2nd millennium BC) contains a satirical letter which first praises the virtues of its recipient, but then mocks the reader's meagre knowledge and achievements. Ancient Greece [edit]The Greeks had no word for what later would be called "satire", although the terms cynicism and parody were used. Modern critics call the Greek playwright Aristophanes one of the best known early satirists: his plays are known for their critical political and societal commentary,[51] particularly for the political satire by which he criticized the powerful Cleon (as in The Knights). He is also notable for the persecution he underwent.[51][52][53][54] Aristophanes' plays turned upon images of filth and disease.[55] His bawdy style was adopted by Greek dramatist-comedian Menander. His early play Drunkenness contains an attack on the politician Callimedon. The oldest form of satire still in use is the Menippean satire by Menippus of Gadara. His own writings are lost. Examples from his admirers and imitators mix seriousness and mockery in dialogues and present parodies before a background of diatribe. The reader is meant to question approved truths to reform knowledge.[citation needed] As in the case of Aristophanes plays, menippean satire turned upon images of filth and disease.[55] Roman world [edit]The first Roman to discuss satire critically was Quintilian, who invented the term to describe the writings of Lucilius. The two most prominent and influential ancient Roman satirists are Horace and Juvenal, who wrote during the early days of the Roman Empire. Other important satirists in ancient Latin are Lucilius and Persius. Satire in their work is much wider than in the modern sense of the word, including fantastic and highly coloured humorous writing with little or no real mocking intent. When Horace criticized Augustus, he used veiled ironic terms. In contrast, Pliny reports that the 6th century BC poet Hipponax wrote satirae that were so cruel that the offended hanged themselves.[56] Medieval Islamic world [edit]
Medieval Arabic poetry included the satiric genre hija. Satire was introduced into Arabic prose literature by the Afro-Arab author Al-Jahiz in the 9th century. While dealing with serious topics in what are now known as anthropology, sociology and psychology, he introduced a satirical approach, "based on the premise that, however serious the subject under review, it could be made more interesting and thus achieve greater effect, if only one leavened the lump of solemnity by the insertion of a few amusing anecdotes or by the throwing out of some witty or paradoxical observations. He was well aware that, in treating of new themes in his prose works, he would have to employ a vocabulary of a nature more familiar in hija, satirical poetry."[57] For example, in one of his zoological works, he satirized the preference for longer human penis size, writing: "If the length of the penis were a sign of honor, then the mule would belong to the (honorable tribe of) Quraysh". Another satirical story based on this preference was an Arabian Nights tale called "Ali with the Large Member".[58] In the 10th century, the writer Tha'alibi recorded satirical poetry written by the Arabic poets As-Salami and Abu Dulaf, with As-Salami praising Abu Dulaf's wide breadth of knowledge and then mocking his ability in all these subjects, and with Abu Dulaf responding back and satirizing As-Salami in return.[59] An example of Arabic political satire included another 10th century poet Jarir satirizing Farazdaq as "a transgressor of the Sharia" and later Arabic poets in turn using the term "Farazdaq-like" as a form of political satire.[60] The terms "comedy" and "satire" became synonymous after Aristotle's Poetics was translated into Arabic in the medieval Islamic world, where it was elaborated upon by Islamic philosophers and writers, such as Abu Bischr, his pupil Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes. Due to cultural differences, they disassociated comedy from Greek dramatic representation and instead identified it with Arabic poetic themes and forms, such as hija (satirical poetry). They viewed comedy as simply the "art of reprehension", and made no reference to light and cheerful events, or troubled beginnings and happy endings, associated with classical Greek comedy. After the Latin translations of the 12th century, the term "comedy" thus gained a new semantic meaning in Medieval literature.[61] Ubayd Zakani introduced satire in Persian literature during the 14th century. His work is noted for its satire and obscene verses, often political or bawdy, and often cited in debates involving homosexual practices. He wrote the Resaleh-ye Delgosha, as well as Akhlaq al-Ashraf ("Ethics of the Aristocracy") and the famous humorous fable Masnavi Mush-O-Gorbeh (Mouse and Cat), which was a political satire. His non-satirical serious classical verses have also been regarded as very well written, in league with the other great works of Persian literature. Between 1905 and 1911, Bibi Khatoon Astarabadi and other Iranian writers wrote notable satires. Medieval Europe [edit]In the Early Middle Ages, examples of satire were the songs by Goliards or vagants now best known as an anthology called Carmina Burana and made famous as texts of a composition by the 20th century composer Carl Orff. Satirical poetry is believed to have been popular, although little has survived. With the advent of the High Middle Ages and the birth of modern vernacular literature in the 12th century, it began to be used again, most notably by Chaucer. The disrespectful manner was considered "Unchristian" and ignored but for the moral satire, which mocked misbehaviour in Christian terms. Examples are Livre des Manières by Étienne de Fougères (fr) (~1178), and some of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. The epos was mocked, and even the feudal society, but there was hardly a general interest in the genre. Two major satirists of Europe in the Renaissance were Giovanni Boccaccio and François Rabelais. Other examples of Renaissance satire include Till Eulenspiegel, Reynard the Fox, Sebastian Brant's Narrenschiff (1494), Erasmus' Moriae Encomium (1509) and Thomas More's Utopia (1516). Early modern western satire [edit]
Direct social commentary via satire returned with a vengeance in the 16th century, when farcical texts such as the works of François Rabelais tackled more serious issues (and incurred the wrath of the crown as a result). The Elizabethan (i.e. 16th century English) writers thought of satire as related to the notoriously rude, coarse and sharp satyr play. Elizabethan "satire" (typically in pamphlet form) therefore contains more straightforward abuse than subtle irony. The French Huguenot Isaac Casaubon pointed out in 1605 that satire in the Roman fashion was something altogether more civilised. Casaubon discovered and published Quintilian's writing and presented the original meaning of the term (satira, not satyr), and the sense of wittiness (reflecting the "dishfull of fruits") became more important again. 17th century English satire once again aimed at the "amendment of vices" (Dryden). In the 1590s a new wave of verse satire broke with the publication of Hall's Virgidemiarum, six books of verse satires targeting everything from literary fads to corrupt noblemen. Although Donne had already circulated satires in manuscript, Hall's was the first real attempt in English at verse satire on the Juvenalian model.[62][page needed] The success of his work combined with a national mood of disillusion in the last years of Elizabeth's reign triggered an avalanche of satire – much of it less conscious of classical models than Hall's — until the fashion was brought to an abrupt stop by censorship.[a] Age of Enlightenment [edit]The Age of Enlightenment, an intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th century advocating rationality, produced a great revival of satire in Britain. This was fuelled by the rise of partisan politics, with the formalisation of the Tory and Whig parties — and also, in 1714, by the formation of the Scriblerus Club, which included Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift, John Gay, John Arbuthnot, Robert Harley, Thomas Parnell, and Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke. This club included several of the notable satirists of early 18th century Britain. They focused their attention on Martinus Scriblerus, "an invented learned fool... whose work they attributed all that was tedious, narrow-minded, and pedantic in contemporary scholarship".[64] In their hands astute and biting satire of institutions and individuals became a popular weapon. The turn to the 18th century was characterized by a switch from Horatian, soft, pseudo-satire, to biting "juvenal" satire.[65] Jonathan Swift was one of the greatest of Anglo-Irish satirists, and one of the first to practise modern journalistic satire. For instance, In his A Modest Proposal Swift suggests that Irish peasants be encouraged to sell their own children as food for the rich, as a solution to the "problem" of poverty. His purpose is of course to attack indifference to the plight of the desperately poor. In his book Gulliver's Travels he writes about the flaws in human society in general and English society in particular. John Dryden wrote an influential essay entitled "A Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire" [66] that helped fix the definition of satire in the literary world. His satirical Mac Flecknoe was written in response to a rivalry with Thomas Shadwell and eventually inspired Alexander Pope to write his satirical The Rape of the Lock. Other satirical works by Pope include the Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot. Daniel Defoe pursued a more journalistic type of satire, being famous for his The True-Born Englishman which mocks xenophobic patriotism, and The Shortest-Way with the Dissenters - advocating religious toleration by means of an ironical exaggeration of the highly intolerant attitudes of his time. Ebenezer Cooke (1665-1732), author of "The Sot-Weed Factor" (1708), was among the first American colonialists to write literary satire. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) and others followed, using satire to shape an emerging nation's culture through its sense of the ridiculous. Satire in Victorian England [edit]Several satiric papers competed for the public's attention in the Victorian era (1837-1901) and Edwardian period, such as Punch (1841) and Fun (1861). Perhaps the most enduring examples of Victorian satire, however, are to be found in the Savoy Operas of Gilbert and Sullivan. In fact, in The Yeomen of the Guard, a jester is given lines that paint a very neat picture of the method and purpose of the satirist, and might almost be taken as a statement of Gilbert's own intent:
Novelists such as Charles Dickens often used passages of satiric writing in their treatment of social issues.[citation needed] In the same period, in the United States, Mark Twain (1835-1910) was a great American satirist: his novel Huckleberry Finn (1884) is set in the antebellum South, where the moral values Twain wishes to promote are completely turned on their heads. His hero, Huck, is a rather simple but goodhearted lad who is ashamed of the "sinful temptation" that leads him to help a runaway slave. In fact his conscience, warped by the distorted moral world he has grown up in, often bothers him most when he is at his best. Ironically, he is prepared to do good, believing it to be wrong. Twain's younger contemporary Ambrose Bierce (1842-1913) gained notoriety as a cynic, pessimist and black humorist[citation needed] with his dark, bitterly ironic stories, many set during the American Civil War, which satirized the limitations of human perception and reason. Bierce's most famous work of satire is probably The Devil's Dictionary (1906), in which the definitions mock cant, hypocrisy and received wisdom. 20th century satire [edit]In 20th century literature, satire was used by authors such as Aldous Huxley (1930s) and George Orwell (1940s), which under the inspiration of Zamyatin's Russian 1921 novel We, made serious and even frightening commentaries on the dangers of the sweeping social changes taking place throughout Europe and United States. Many social critics of the time, such as Karl Kraus, Dorothy Parker and H. L. Mencken, used satire as their main weapon, and Mencken in particular is noted for having said that "one horse-laugh is worth ten thousand syllogisms" in the persuasion of the public to accept a criticism. Novelist Sinclair Lewis was known for his satirical stories such as Babbitt (1922), Main Street (1920), and It Can't Happen Here (1935). His books often explored and satirized contemporary American values. The film The Great Dictator (1940) by Charlie Chaplin is a parody of Adolf Hitler; Chaplin later declared that he would have not made the film if he had known about the concentration camps.[67] 
In the United States 1950s, satire was introduced into American stand-up comedy most prominently by Lenny Bruce and Mort Sahl.[17] As they challenged the taboos and conventional wisdom of the time, were ostracized by the mass media establishment as sick comedians. In the same period, Paul Krassner's magazine The Realist began publication, to become immensely popular during the 1960s and early 1970s among people in the counterculture; it had articles and cartoons that were savage, biting satires of politicians such as Lyndon Johnson and Richard Nixon, the Vietnam War, the Cold War and the War on Drugs. Prominent satiric stand-up comedian George Carlin acknowledged the influence The Realist had in his 1970s conversion to a satiric comedian.[68][69] 
A more humorous brand of satire enjoyed a renaissance in the UK in the early 1960s with the satire boom, led by such luminaries as Peter Cook, Alan Bennett, Jonathan Miller, and Dudley Moore, whose stage show Beyond the Fringe was a hit not only in Britain, but also in the United States. Other significant influences in 1960s British satire include David Frost, Eleanor Bron and the television program That Was The Week That Was.[citation needed] Joseph Heller's most famous work, Catch-22 (1961), satirizes bureaucracy and the military, and is frequently cited as one of the greatest literary works of the twentieth century.[70] The film Dr. Strangelove from 1964 was a popular satire on the Cold War. Contemporary satire [edit]Contemporary popular usage of the term "satire" is often very imprecise. While satire often uses caricature and parody, by no means are all uses of these or other humorous devices, satiric. Refer to the careful definition of satire that heads this article. Satire is used on many UK television programmes, particularly popular panel shows and quiz shows such as Mock the Week (2005) and Have I Got News for You (1990-ongoing). Similarly it is found on radio quiz shows such as The News Quiz (1977-ongoing) and The Now Show (1998-ongoing). The television program South Park (1997) relies almost exclusively on satire to address issues in American culture, with episodes addressing anti-Semitism, militant atheism, homophobia, environmentalism, corporate culture, political correctness and anti-Catholicism, among many other issues. Australian Chris Lilley produces comedy art in the style of mockumentaries (We Can Be Heroes, Summer Heights High, Angry Boys) and his work is often described as complex social satire. 
Stephen Colbert’s television program, The Colbert Report (2005), is instructive in the methods of contemporary American satire. Colbert's character is an opinionated and self-righteous commentator who, in his TV interviews, interrupts people, points and wags his finger at them, and "unwittingly" uses a number of logical fallacies. In doing so, he demonstrates the principle of modern American political satire: the ridicule of the actions of politicians and other public figures by taking all their statements and purported beliefs to their furthest (supposedly) logical conclusion, thus revealing their perceived hypocrisy. Other political satire includes various political causes in the past, including the relatively successful Polish Beer-Lovers' Party and the joke political candidates Molly the Dog[71] and Brian Miner.[72] In the United Kingdom, a popular modern satirist is Sir Terry Pratchett, author of the internationally best-selling Discworld book series. One of the most well-known and controversial British satirists is Chris Morris, co-writer and director of Four Lions. In Canada, satire has become an important part of the comedy scene. Stephen Leacock was one of the best known early Canadian satirists, and in the early 20th century, he achieved fame by targeting the attitudes of small town life. In more recent years, Canada has had several prominent satirical television series. Some, including CODCO, The Royal Canadian Air Farce, and This Hour Has 22 Minutes deal directly with current news stories and political figures, while others, like History Bites present contemporary social satire in the context of events and figures in history. The Canadian organization Canada News Network provides commentary on contemporary news events that are primarily Canadian in nature. Canadian songwriter Nancy White uses music as the vehicle for her satire, and her comic folk songs are regularly played on CBC Radio. Cartoonists often use satire as well as straight humour. Al Capp's satirical comic strip Li'l Abner was censored in September 1947. The controversy, as reported in Time, centred around Capp's portrayal of the US Senate. Said Edward Leech of Scripps-Howard, "We don't think it is good editing or sound citizenship to picture the Senate as an assemblage of freaks and crooks... boobs and undesirables." [73] Walt Kelly's Pogo was likewise censored in 1952 over his overt satire of Senator Joe McCarthy, caricatured in his comic strip as "Simple J. Malarky". Garry Trudeau, whose comic strip Doonesbury has charted and recorded many American follies for the last generation, deals with story lines such as the Vietnam War (and now, the Iraq War), dumbed-down education, and over-eating at "McFriendly's". Trudeau exemplifies humour mixed with criticism. Recently, one of his gay characters lamented that because he was not legally married to his partner, he was deprived of the "exquisite agony" of experiencing a nasty and painful divorce like heterosexuals. This, of course, satirized the claim that gay unions would denigrate the sanctity of heterosexual marriage. Doonesbury also presents an example of how satire can cause social change. The comic strip satirized a Florida county that had a law requiring minorities to have a passcard in the area; the law was soon repealed with an act nicknamed the Doonesbury Act.[74][dead link] Like some literary predecessors, many recent television satires contain strong elements of parody and caricature; for instance, the popular animated series The Simpsons and South Park both parody modern family and social life by taking their assumptions to the extreme; both have led to the creation of similar series. As well as the purely humorous effect of this sort of thing, they often strongly criticise various phenomena in politics, economic life, religion and many other aspects of society, and thus qualify as satirical. Due to their animated nature, these shows can easily use images of public figures and generally have greater freedom to do so than conventional shows using live actors. Fake News is also a very popular form of contemporary satire, appearing in as wide an array of formats as the news media itself: print (e.g. The Onion, Canada News Network, Private Eye), radio (e.g. On the Hour), television (e.g. The Day Today, The Daily Show, Brass Eye) and the web (e.g. Mindry.in, Scunt News,[75] Faking News, El Koshary Today, The Giant Napkin,[76] Unconfirmed Sources[77] and The Onion's website). Other satires are on the list of satirists and satires. Another internet-driven form of satire is to lampoon bad internet performers. An example of this is the Internet meme character Miranda Sings.[78][79] In an interview with Wikinews, Sean Mills, President of The Onion, said angry letters about their news parody always carried the same message. "It’s whatever affects that person," said Mills. "So it’s like, 'I love it when you make a joke about murder or rape, but if you talk about cancer, well my brother has cancer and that’s not funny to me.' Or someone else can say, 'Cancer’s hilarious, but don’t talk about rape because my cousin got raped.' Those are rather extreme examples, but if it affects somebody personally, they tend to be more sensitive about it."[80] Zhou Libo, a comedian from Shanghai, is the most popular satirist in China. His humour has interests middle-class people and has sold out shows ever since his rise to fame. Primarily a theater performer, Zhou said his work is never scripted, allowing him to improvise jokes about recent events. He often mocks political figures he supports.[citation needed] Techniques [edit]Literary satire is usually written out of earlier satiric works, reprising previous conventions, commonplaces, stance, situations and tones of voice.[81] Exaggeration is one of the most common satirical techniques.[3] Censorship and criticism of satire [edit]Descriptions of satire's biting effect on its target include 'venomous', 'cutting', 'stinging',[82] vitriol. Because satire often combines anger and humour it can be profoundly disturbing.[clarification needed][citation needed] Typical arguments [edit]Because it is essentially ironic or sarcastic, satire is often misunderstood.[clarification needed][citation needed] A typical misunderstanding is to confuse the satirist with his persona.[83] Bad taste [edit]Common uncomprehending responses to satire include revulsion (accusations of poor taste, or that "it's just not funny" for instance), to the idea that the satirist actually does support the ideas, policies, or people he is attacking. For instance, at the time of its publication, many people misunderstood Swift’s purpose in A Modest Proposal, assuming it to be a serious recommendation of economically motivated cannibalism. Targeting the victim [edit]Some critics of Mark Twain see Huckleberry Finn as racist and offensive, missing the point that its author clearly intended it to be satire (racism being in fact only one of a number of Mark Twain's known concerns attacked in Huckleberry Finn).[84][85] This same misconception was suffered by the main character of the 1960s British television comedy satire Till Death Us Do Part. The character of Alf Garnett (played by Warren Mitchell) was created to poke fun at the kind of narrow-minded, racist, little Englander that Garnett represented. Instead, his character became a sort of anti-hero to people who actually agreed with his views. The same thing happened in regard to the main character in the American TV Show All in the Family, Archie Bunker. The Australian satirical television comedy show The Chaser's War on Everything has suffered repeated attacks based on various perceived interpretations of the "target" of its attacks. The "Make a Realistic Wish Foundation" sketch (June 2009), which attacked in classical satiric fashion the heartlessness of people who are reluctant to donate to charities, was widely interpreted as an attack on the Make a Wish Foundation, or even the terminally ill children helped by that organisation. Prime Minister of the time Kevin Rudd stated that The Chaser team "should hang their heads in shame". He went on to say that "I didn't see that but it's been described to me. ...But having a go at kids with a terminal illness is really beyond the pale, absolutely beyond the pale."[86] Television station management suspended the show for two weeks and reduced the third season to eight episodes. Romantic prejudice [edit]The romantic prejudice against satire is the belief spread by the romantic movement that satire is something unworthy of serious attention; this prejudice has held considerable influence to this day.[87] Such prejudice extends to humor and everything that arouses laughter, which are often underestimated as frivolous and unworthy of serious study.[88] For instance, humor is generally neglected as a topic of anthropological research and teaching.[89] History of opposition toward notable satires [edit]
Because satire criticises in an ironic, essentially indirect way, it frequently escapes censorship in a way more direct criticism might not. Periodically, however, it runs into serious opposition, and people in power who perceive themselves as attacked attempt to censor it or prosecute its practitioners.[citation needed] In a classic example, Aristophanes was persecuted by the demagogue Cleon. 1599 book ban [edit]In 1599, the Archbishop of Canterbury John Whitgift and the Bishop of London Richard Bancroft, whose offices had the function of licensing books for publication in England, issued a decree banning verse satire. The decree, now known as the Bishops' Ban of 1599, ordered the burning of certain volumes of satire by John Marston, Thomas Middleton, Joseph Hall, and others; it also required histories and plays to be specially approved by a member of the Queen's Privy Council, and it prohibited the future printing of satire in verse.[90][non-primary source needed] The motives for the ban are obscure, particularly since some of the books banned had been licensed by the same authorities less than a year earlier. Various scholars have argued that the target was obscenity, libel, or sedition. It seems likely that lingering anxiety about the Martin Marprelate controversy, in which the bishops themselves had employed satirists, played a role; both Thomas Nashe and Gabriel Harvey, two of the key figures in that controversy, suffered a complete ban on all their works. In the event, though, the ban was little enforced, even by the licensing authority itself. 21st century polemics [edit]In 2005, the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy caused global protests by offended Muslims and violent attacks with many fatalities in the Near East. It was not the first case of Muslim protests against criticism in the form of satire, but the Western world was surprised by the hostility of the reaction: Any country's flag in which a newspaper chose to publish the parodies was being burnt in a Near East country, then embassies were attacked, killing 139 people in mainly four countries; politicians throughout Europe agreed that satire was an aspect of the freedom of speech, and therefore to be a protected means of dialogue.[citation needed] Iran threatened to start an International Holocaust Cartoon Competition, which was immediately responded to by Jews with an Israeli Anti-Semitic Cartoons Contest. In 2006 British comedian Sacha Baron Cohen released Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan, a "mockumentary" that satirized everyone, from high society to frat boys. Criticism of the film was heavy, from claims of Islamophobia and antisemitism (despite the fact that Baron Cohen is Jewish) to the massive boycott of the film by the Kazakh government; the film itself had been a reaction to a longer quarrel between the government and the comedian. In 2008, popular South African cartoonist and satirist Jonathan Shapiro (who is published under the pen name Zapiro) came under fire for depicting then-president of the ANC Jacob Zuma in the act of undressing in preparation for the implied rape of 'Lady Justice' which is held down by Zuma loyalists.[91] The cartoon was drawn in response to Zuma's efforts to duck corruption charges, and the controversy was heightened by the fact that Zuma was himself acquitted of rape in May 2006. In February 2009, the South African Broadcasting Corporation, viewed by some opposition parties as the mouthpiece of the governing ANC,[92] shelved a satirical TV show created by Shapiro,[93] and in May 2009 the broadcaster pulled a documentary about political satire (featuring Shapiro among others) for the second time, hours before scheduled broadcast.[94] Apartheid South Africa also had a long history of censorship. On December 29, 2009, Samsung sued Mike Breen, and the Korea Times for $1 million, claiming criminal defamation over a satirical column published on Christmas Day, 2009.[95][96] Satirical prophecy [edit]Satire is occasionally prophetic: the jokes precede actual events.[97][98] Among the eminent examples are:
See also [edit]
Notes [edit]
References [edit]
Bibliography [edit]
Further reading [edit]
Theories/Critical approaches to satire as a genre [edit]
The Plot of Satire [edit]
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