بانک
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بانک نهادی اقتصادی است که وظیفههایی چون تجهیز و توزیع اعتبارات، عملیات اعتباری، عملیات مالی، خرید و فروش ارز، نقل و انتقال وجوه، وصول مطالبات اسنادی و سود سهام مشتریان، پرداخت بدهی مشتریان، قبول امانات، نگهداری سهام و اوراق بهادار و اشیای قیمتی مشتریان، انجام وظیفهٔ قیمومیت و وصایت برای مشتریان، انجام وکالت خریدیا فروش را بر عهده دارند. وظایف بانک مرکزی عبارتست از انتشار اسکناس و تنظیم حجم پول در گردش، نگهداری فلزات گرانبها و ارزهای متعلق به دولت، نگهداری ذخایر قانونی و موجودی نقدی بانکهای تجاری، ایجاد امکانات اعتباری برای بانکهای تجاری، انجام دادن عملیات تصفیه حساب بین بانکها، صندوقداری و نمایندگی مالی برای عملیات بانکی دولت، اجرای سیاست پولی و کنترل حجم اعتبارات. این بانک مسؤولیت کنترل شبکه بانکی و اداره سیاست پولی ثبات را بر عهده دارد.این بانک، بانکها را در جهت ارائهٔ خدمت و هماهنگی با اقتصاد به فعّالیت وامیدارد.
پیشینه [ویرایش]کهنترین شکل بانکداری مربوط به دوران هخامنشیان و در میانرودان (بخشی از ایران آن زمان) است که در آنجا یهودیان عهدهدار امور بانکداری بودهاند. مدارکی از این ناحیه به دست آمدهاست که کاملا حکم چک را دارند. واژهٔ «بانک» نیز در آن زمان به کار میرفتهاست و واژه «چک» نیز از آن روزگار تا به امروز باقی ماندهاست. در نوشتههای ساسانیان به زبان پهلوی به واژه چک برمیخوریم و همین واژه از ایران به دیگر نقاط جهان راه یافتهاست.[۱] تاریخچه بانکداری مدرن [ویرایش]ریشه بانکداری به معنای امروزی این کلمه، میتوان در دوره رنسانس ایتالیا ودر شهرهای ثروتمند آن درشمال مانند فلورانس، ونیس و ژنووا یافت. خانوادههای باردی و پروزی در ۴ میلادی بانکداری را در فلورانس با توضیع شعبات در بسیاری از بخشهای دیگر اروپا گسترش دادند. و شاید مشهورترین بانک ایتالیا، بانک medici، باشد که توسط جیووانی مدیسی در سال ۱۳۹۷ تاسیس شد. اولین بانک سرمایه گذاری ایالتی شناخته شد،بانک سنت جورج (به ایتالیایی: Banco di san Giorgio) در ژنووا ایتالیا در سال ۱۴۰۷، تاسیس شد. منشا کلمه بانک [ویرایش]واژهٔ بانک در زبان انگلیسی میانه از زبان فرانسوی میانه (banque)، و آنهم از واژه ایتالیایی قدیمی banca، وآن نیز از واژه آلمانی بسیار قدیمی banc،bank،"bench.counter" گرفته شدهاست. Beachها (نیمکتها) بعنوان میزها یا شمارشگرهای مبادله در حین دوره رنسانس توسط بانکداران فلورانتین مورد استعمال قرار میگرفتند که مذاکرات ومبادلاتشان را پشت میزهایی انجام میدادند که با رومیزیهای سبز رنگ پوشیده شده بود. یکی از قدیمی ترین موارد مشاهده شد که نشان دهندهٔ فعالیتهای تبدیل پولی بود، سکه درهم نقره یونان است که از مستعمرهٔ ترابزون یونان باستان در دریای سیاه، ترابزون کنونی، پیش از میلاد، میباشد که در موزهٔ برینتانیا در لندن به نمایش گذاشته شدهاست. این سکه نشان میدهد که میز یک بانکدار (تراپزا) مملو از سکه بود، که جناسی از نام شهر میباشد. درحقیقت، حتی در زمان حاضر دریونان امروزی، واژه trapeze(تراپزا)به معنی یک میز میباشد وهم به معنی بانک. ریشهٔ احتمالی این واژه سانسکریت bayaya یعنی هزینه و onka یعنی محاسبه bayaya-onka گرفته شدهاست. این واژه همچنان در بنگلادش مورد استعمال قرار میگرد که یکی از زبانهای کودکی سانسکریت است. این محاسبات هزینه، بزرگترین بخش قراردادهای ریاضی است که توسط ریاضیدانان هندی در اوایل سال ۵۰۰ پیش از میلاد نوشته شد. تعریف بانک [ویرایش]تعاریفی که از یک بانک ارائه میشود از کشوری به کشور دیگر متفاوت است. انگلستان [ویرایش]طبق قوانین معمول انگلیسی، یک بانکدار به عنوان فردی تعریف شدهاست که دارای شغل بانکداری است و مسئولیتهایش که به صورت زیر تعیین شدهاست:
شغل بانکداری در بسیاری از کشورها که قانون متداول انگلیس در آن رایج است از طریق اساسنامه تعریف نشدهاست اما این تعریف طبق قوانین متداول صورت گرفتهاست. در دیگر حوزههای قانون رایج انگلیسی، تعاریف قانونی مختلفی از شغل بانکداری ارائه شدهاست. با توجه به این تعاریف، باید بخاطر داشت که آنها به تعریف شغل بانکداری با هدف قانون گذاری برای آن میپردازد، ونه لزوما برای ارائه تعریف کلی. به ویژه، اکثر تعاریف از سوی مراجع قانونی ارائه شدهاست که بیشتر دارای اهداف ورود قانون وپشتیبانی از بانکها هستند تا اینکه بخواهند تعریف و قانونی در زمینه شغل حقیقی بانکداری ارائه دهند. اما در بسیاری از موارد، تعریف قانونی آن، بازتاب دقیقی از تعاریف قانونی متداول است. ایالات متحده آمریکا [ویرایش]در ایالات متحده آمریکا صنعت بانکداری صنعتی کاملا قانوندار با قانونگذاری بسیار دقیق و نکتهبین است تمامی بانکها با سپردهای تضمین شده ازطریق fdec دارای شرکت نیمه سپرده گذاری فدران fdic بعنوان یک متعادل کننده هستند گرچه سیستم ذخیره فدرالی اولین تعدیل کننده بانکهای ایالتی عضو فدرال است اما اداره ممیزی اسکناس occ اولین تعدیل کننده فدرالی بانکهای داخلی است و اداره نظارت بر پس انداز یا ots اولین تعدیل کننده فدرالی پساندازها میباشد. بانکهای غیر عضو ایالتی از طریق مراکز ایالتی وهمینطور fdic مورد بررسی قرار میگیرند. بانکهای داخلی یک تعدیل کننده اولیه دارد یعنی occ واسطههای واجد شرایط و کارگران کمکی توسط MAIC تعدیل میشوند هر مرکز تعدیل مجموعه قوانین ومقررات خاص خودش را دارد که بانکها و صندوقهای ذخیره باید از آنها پیروی کنند. شورای نظارت بر موسسات مالی فدرال FFIEC درسال ۱۹۷۹ بعنوان یک بدنه بین نمایندگیهای رسمی که وکالت دارند تا قوانین وسیاستگذاریهای واحد معیارها واستانداردها را تعریف کرده شیوههای متداول فدرال بر موسسات مالی را گزارش دهد گرچه FFIEC موجب ایجاد درجهٔ بالاتری از تعدیل بین نمایندگیها وشعب بانکها شدهاست قوانین و مقررات تعدیل دائما در حال تغییر است علاوه بر قوانین در حال تغییر تغییرات در صنعت موجب ادغام موسسات ذخیره فدرال FDIC،OTS،MAIC،OCC در هم شدهاست ادارات بسته شدهاند. بانکداری [ویرایش]فعالیتهای استاندارد [ویرایش]بانکها به عنوان عامل پرداخت کننده از طریق اجرای چکها یا حسابهای جاری مشتریان، فعالیت میکنند که چکهای کشیده شده در وجه مشتریان درآن بانک را پرداخت میکنند و چکهای سپرده به حسابهای جاری مشتریان را جمع آوری میکنند. همچنین بانکها وجوه مشتریان را از طریق دیگر روشهای پرداخت، نظیر ACH، انتقال مخابرهای یا تلگرافی،EFTPOS، ماشین گویای اتوماتیک (ATM)خودپرداز که میپردازند. قوانین [ویرایش]موضوع اصلی، قوانین بانکداری: بانکهای تجاری کنونی دراکثر حوزهها ی قانون گذاری توسط موسسات مستقل از دولت تنظیم و تاسیس شدهاند و مدارک بانکی ویژهای جهت اداره آن میطلبد. قانون بانکداری بر اساس یک تحلیل قرار دادی از روابط بین بانک و مشتری این قانون دربردارندهٔ حقوق ومقرراتی است که در این رابطه وجود دارد که به صورت زیر است:
از همان رابطه اعتباری است
به بانک بدهکار باشد
تاسیس شده باشد. الزامات صدور مجوز بانکی در بین حوزههای قانونی، متفاوت است اما به طور کلی به قرار زیر است:
کافی محتاطانه و قابل پذیرش میباشد خطر پذیری و سرمایه [ویرایش]بانکها با خطرات زیدی جهت انجام فعالیتهای تجاری مواجهاند و چگونگی مدیریت و درک این بحرانها و خطرات یک راهبرد کلیدی جهت سوددهی میباشد و اینکه یک بانک به چه اندازه سرمایه نیاز دارد برخی از خطرات که بانک با آن مواجهاست به قرار زیر میباشد:
بانکها در اقتصاد [ویرایش]عملکردهای اقتصادی [ویرایش]عملکردهای اقتصادی بانکها به قرار زیر است:
بحران بانک [ویرایش]بانکها در معرض اشکالات مختلفی از خطرات وبحرانها قرار دارند که سبب ساز بحرانهای سیستماتیک موقتی میشود. گونههای بانکداری [ویرایش]
انواع بانکها [ویرایش]بانکها را میتوان به انواع مختلف تقسیم کرد از قبیل:
اکثر بانکها و موسسات اقتصادی خصوصی سودآور هستند اما برخی از آنها توسط دولت اداره میشود، یا سازمانهای غیرانتفاعی میباشد. انواع بانکهای جزئی [ویرایش]
انواع بانکهای سرمایه [ویرایش]
انواع دیگر بانکها [ویرایش]
بانکهای ایران [ویرایش]
چاپ اسکناس [ویرایش]جستارهای وابسته [ویرایش]منابع [ویرایش]
اقتصاد چیست؟، محمد مهدی بهکیش، نشر نی، چاپ دوم، ۱۳۸۱
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For other uses, see Bank (disambiguation).
"Banker" and "Bankers" redirect here. For other uses, see Banker (disambiguation).
A bank is a financial institution and a financial intermediary that accepts deposits and channels those deposits into lending activities, either directly by loaning or indirectly through capital markets. A bank is the connection between customers that have capital deficits and customers with capital surpluses. Due to their influence within a financial system and the economy, banks are highly regulated in most countries. Most banks operate under a system known as fractional reserve banking where they hold only a small reserve of the funds deposited and lend out the rest for profit. They are generally subject to minimum capital requirements which are based on an international set of capital standards, known as the Basel Accords. Banking in its modern sense evolved in the 14th century in the rich cities of Renaissance Italy but in many ways was a continuation of ideas and concepts of credit and lending that had its roots in the ancient world. In the history of banking, a number of banking dynasties have played a central role over many centuries.
History [edit]
Main article: History of banking
Banking in the modern sense of the word can be traced to medieval and early Renaissance Italy, to the rich cities in the north like Florence, Lucca, Siena, Venice and Genoa. The Bardi and Peruzzi families dominated banking in 14th century Florence, establishing branches in many other parts of Europe.[1] One of the most famous Italian banks was the Medici Bank, set up by Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici in 1397.[2] The earliest known state deposit bank, Banco di San Giorgio (Bank of St. George), was founded in 1407 at Genoa, Italy.[3] The oldest bank still in existence is Monte dei Paschi di Siena, headquartered in Siena, Italy, which has been operating continuously since 1472.[4] It is followed by Berenberg Bank of Hamburg (1590)[5] and Sveriges Riksbank of Sweden (1668). Origin of the word [edit]The word bank was borrowed in Middle English from Middle French banque, from Old Italian banca, from Old High German banc, bank "bench, counter". Benches were used as desks or exchange counters during the Renaissance by Florentine bankers, who used to make their transactions atop desks covered by green tablecloths.[6] One of the oldest items found showing money-changing activity is a silver Greek drachm coin from ancient Hellenic colony Trapezus on the Black Sea, modern Trabzon, c. 350–325 BC, presented in the British Museum in London. The coin shows a banker's table (trapeza) laden with coins, a pun on the name of the city. In fact, even today in Modern Greek the word Trapeza (Τράπεζα) means both a table and a bank. Definition [edit]The definition of a bank varies from country to country. See the relevant country page (below) for more information. Under English common law, a banker is defined as a person who carries on the business of banking, which is specified as:[7]
In most common law jurisdictions there is a Bills of Exchange Act that codifies the law in relation to negotiable instruments, including cheques, and this Act contains a statutory definition of the term banker: banker includes a body of persons, whether incorporated or not, who carry on the business of banking' (Section 2, Interpretation). Although this definition seems circular, it is actually functional, because it ensures that the legal basis for bank transactions such as cheques does not depend on how the bank is organized or regulated. The business of banking is in many English common law countries not defined by statute but by common law, the definition above. In other English common law jurisdictions there are statutory definitions of the business of banking or banking business. When looking at these definitions it is important to keep in mind that they are defining the business of banking for the purposes of the legislation, and not necessarily in general. In particular, most of the definitions are from legislation that has the purposes of entry regulating and supervising banks rather than regulating the actual business of banking. However, in many cases the statutory definition closely mirrors the common law one. Examples of statutory definitions:
Since the advent of EFTPOS (Electronic Funds Transfer at Point Of Sale), direct credit, direct debit and internet banking, the cheque has lost its primacy in most banking systems as a payment instrument. This has led legal theorists to suggest that the cheque based definition should be broadened to include financial institutions that conduct current accounts for customers and enable customers to pay and be paid by third parties, even if they do not pay and collect checks.[9] Banking [edit]Standard activities [edit]
Banks act as payment agents by conducting checking or current accounts for customers, paying cheques drawn by customers on the bank, and collecting cheques deposited to customers' current accounts. Banks also enable customer payments via other payment methods such as Automated Clearing House (ACH), Wire transfers or telegraphic transfer, EFTPOS, and automated teller machine (ATM). Banks borrow money by accepting funds deposited on current accounts, by accepting term deposits, and by issuing debt securities such as banknotes and bonds. Banks lend money by making advances to customers on current accounts, by making installment loans, and by investing in marketable debt securities and other forms of money lending. Banks provide different payment services, and a bank account is considered indispensable by most businesses and individuals. Non-banks that provide payment services such as remittance companies are normally not considered as an adequate substitute for a bank account. Banks can create new money when they make a loan. New loans throughout the banking system generate new deposits elsewhere in the system. The money supply is usually increased by the act of lending, and reduced when loans are repaid faster than new ones are generated. In the United Kingdom between 1997 and 2007, there was a big increase in the money supply, largely caused by much more bank lending, which served to push up property prices and increase private debt. The amount of money in the economy as measured by M4 in the UK went from £750 billion to £1700 billion between 1997 and 2007, much of the increase caused by bank lending. [10] If all the banks increase their lending together, then they can expect new deposits to return to them and the amount of money in the economy will increase. Excessive or risky lending can cause borrowers to default, the banks then become more cautious, so there is less lending and therefore less money so the economy can go from boom to bust as happened in the UK and many other Western economies after 2007. Channels [edit]Banks offer many different channels to access their banking and other services:
Business model [edit]A bank can generate revenue in a variety of different ways including interest, transaction fees and financial advice. The main method is via charging interest on the capital it lends out to customers.[citation needed] The bank profits from the difference between the level of interest it pays for deposits and other sources of funds, and the level of interest it charges in its lending activities. This difference is referred to as the spread between the cost of funds and the loan interest rate. Historically, profitability from lending activities has been cyclical and dependent on the needs and strengths of loan customers and the stage of the economic cycle. Fees and financial advice constitute a more stable revenue stream and banks have therefore placed more emphasis on these revenue lines to smooth their financial performance. In the past 20 years American banks have taken many measures to ensure that they remain profitable while responding to increasingly changing market conditions. First, this includes the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act, which allows banks again to merge with investment and insurance houses. Merging banking, investment, and insurance functions allows traditional banks to respond to increasing consumer demands for "one-stop shopping" by enabling cross-selling of products (which, the banks hope, will also increase profitability). Second, they have expanded the use of risk-based pricing from business lending to consumer lending, which means charging higher interest rates to those customers that are considered to be a higher credit risk and thus increased chance of default on loans. This helps to offset the losses from bad loans, lowers the price of loans to those who have better credit histories, and offers credit products to high risk customers who would otherwise be denied credit. Third, they have sought to increase the methods of payment processing available to the general public and business clients. These products include debit cards, prepaid cards, smart cards, and credit cards. They make it easier for consumers to conveniently make transactions and smooth their consumption over time (in some countries with underdeveloped financial systems, it is still common to deal strictly in cash, including carrying suitcases filled with cash to purchase a home). However, with convenience of easy credit, there is also increased risk that consumers will mismanage their financial resources and accumulate excessive debt. Banks make money from card products through interest payments and fees charged to consumers and transaction fees to companies that accept the credit- debit - cards. This helps in making profit and facilitates economic development as a whole.[11] Products [edit].jpg)
Retail banking [edit]
Business (or commercial/investment) banking [edit]
Risk and capital [edit]Banks face a number of risks in order to conduct their business, and how well these risks are managed and understood is a key driver behind profitability, and how much capital a bank is required to hold. Some of the main risks faced by banks include:
The capital requirement is a bank regulation, which sets a framework on how banks and depository institutions must handle their capital. The categorization of assets and capital is highly standardized so that it can be risk weighted (see risk-weighted asset). Banks in the economy [edit]See also: Financial system
Economic functions [edit]The economic functions of banks include:
Bank crisis [edit]Banks are susceptible to many forms of risk which have triggered occasional systemic crises. These include liquidity risk (where many depositors may request withdrawals in excess of available funds), credit risk (the chance that those who owe money to the bank will not repay it), and interest rate risk (the possibility that the bank will become unprofitable, if rising interest rates force it to pay relatively more on its deposits than it receives on its loans). Banking crises have developed many times throughout history, when one or more risks have materialized for a banking sector as a whole. Prominent examples include the bank run that occurred during the Great Depression, the U.S. Savings and Loan crisis in the 1980s and early 1990s, the Japanese banking crisis during the 1990s, and the sub-prime mortgage crisis in the 2000s. Size of global banking industry [edit]Assets of the largest 1,000 banks in the world grew by 6.8% in the 2008/2009 financial year to a record US$96.4 trillion while profits declined by 85% to US$115 billion. Growth in assets in adverse market conditions was largely a result of recapitalization. EU banks held the largest share of the total, 56% in 2008/2009, down from 61% in the previous year. Asian banks' share increased from 12% to 14% during the year, while the share of US banks increased from 11% to 13%. Fee revenue generated by global investment banking totaled US$66.3 billion in 2009, up 12% on the previous year.[13] The United States has the most banks in the world in terms of institutions (7,085 at the end of 2008) and possibly branches (82,000).[citation needed] This is an indicator of the geography and regulatory structure of the USA, resulting in a large number of small to medium-sized institutions in its banking system. As of Nov 2009, China's top 4 banks have in excess of 67,000 branches (ICBC:18000+, BOC:12000+, CCB:13000+, ABC:24000+) with an additional 140 smaller banks with an undetermined number of branches. Japan had 129 banks and 12,000 branches. In 2004, Germany, France, and Italy each had more than 30,000 branches—more than double the 15,000 branches in the UK.[13] Regulation [edit]Main article: Banking regulation
See also: Basel II
Currently commercial banks are regulated in most jurisdictions by government entities and require a special bank license to operate. Usually the definition of the business of banking for the purposes of regulation is extended to include acceptance of deposits, even if they are not repayable to the customer's order—although money lending, by itself, is generally not included in the definition. Unlike most other regulated industries, the regulator is typically also a participant in the market, being either a publicly or privately governed central bank. Central banks also typically have a monopoly on the business of issuing banknotes. However, in some countries this is not the case. In the UK, for example, the Financial Services Authority licenses banks, and some commercial banks (such as the Bank of Scotland) issue their own banknotes in addition to those issued by the Bank of England, the UK government's central bank. Banking law is based on a contractual analysis of the relationship between the bank (defined above) and the customer—defined as any entity for which the bank agrees to conduct an account. The law implies rights and obligations into this relationship as follows:
These implied contractual terms may be modified by express agreement between the customer and the bank. The statutes and regulations in force within a particular jurisdiction may also modify the above terms and/or create new rights, obligations or limitations relevant to the bank-customer relationship. Some types of financial institution, such as building societies and credit unions, may be partly or wholly exempt from bank license requirements, and therefore regulated under separate rules. The requirements for the issue of a bank license vary between jurisdictions but typically include:
Types of banks [edit]Banks' activities can be divided into retail banking, dealing directly with individuals and small businesses; business banking, providing services to mid-market business; corporate banking, directed at large business entities; private banking, providing wealth management services to high net worth individuals and families; and investment banking, relating to activities on the financial markets. Most banks are profit-making, private enterprises. However, some are owned by government, or are non-profit organizations. Types of retail banks [edit]
Types of investment banks [edit]
Both combined [edit]
Other types of banks [edit]
Challenges within the banking industry [edit]
United States [edit]Main article: Banking in the United States
The United States banking industry is one of the most heavily regulated in the world,[14] with multiple specialized and focused regulators. All banks with FDIC-insured deposits have the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) as a regulator. However, for soundness examinations (i.e., whether a bank is operating in a sound manner), the Federal Reserve is the primary federal regulator for Fed-member state banks; the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) is the primary federal regulator for national banks; and the Office of Thrift Supervision, or OTS, is the primary federal regulator for thrifts. State non-member banks are examined by the state agencies as well as the FDIC. National banks have one primary regulator—the OCC. Qualified Intermediaries & Exchange Accommodators are regulated by MAIC. Each regulatory agency has their own set of rules and regulations to which banks and thrifts must adhere. The Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council (FFIEC) was established in 1979 as a formal inter-agency body empowered to prescribe uniform principles, standards, and report forms for the federal examination of financial institutions. Although the FFIEC has resulted in a greater degree of regulatory consistency between the agencies, the rules and regulations are constantly changing. In addition to changing regulations, changes in the industry have led to consolidations within the Federal Reserve, FDIC, OTS, MAIC and OCC. Offices have been closed, supervisory regions have been merged, staff levels have been reduced and budgets have been cut. The remaining regulators face an increased burden with increased workload and more banks per regulator. While banks struggle to keep up with the changes in the regulatory environment, regulators struggle to manage their workload and effectively regulate their banks. The impact of these changes is that banks are receiving less hands-on assessment by the regulators, less time spent with each institution, and the potential for more problems slipping through the cracks, potentially resulting in an overall increase in bank failures across the United States. The changing economic environment has a significant impact on banks and thrifts as they struggle to effectively manage their interest rate spread in the face of low rates on loans, rate competition for deposits and the general market changes, industry trends and economic fluctuations. It has been a challenge for banks to effectively set their growth strategies with the recent economic market. A rising interest rate environment may seem to help financial institutions, but the effect of the changes on consumers and businesses is not predictable and the challenge remains for banks to grow and effectively manage the spread to generate a return to their shareholders. The management of the banks’ asset portfolios also remains a challenge in today’s economic environment. Loans are a bank’s primary asset category and when loan quality becomes suspect, the foundation of a bank is shaken to the core. While always an issue for banks, declining asset quality has become a big problem for financial institutions. There are several reasons for this, one of which is the lax attitude some banks have adopted because of the years of “good times.” The potential for this is exacerbated by the reduction in the regulatory oversight of banks and in some cases depth of management. Problems are more likely to go undetected, resulting in a significant impact on the bank when they are recognized. In addition, banks, like any business, struggle to cut costs and have consequently eliminated certain expenses, such as adequate employee training programs. Banks also face a host of other challenges such as aging ownership groups. Across the country, many banks’ management teams and board of directors are aging. Banks also face ongoing pressure by shareholders, both public and private, to achieve earnings and growth projections. Regulators place added pressure on banks to manage the various categories of risk. Banking is also an extremely competitive industry. Competing in the financial services industry has become tougher with the entrance of such players as insurance agencies, credit unions, check cashing services, credit card companies, etc. As a reaction, banks have developed their activities in financial instruments, through financial market operations such as brokerage and MAIC trust & Securities Clearing services trading and become big players in such activities. Competition for loanable funds [edit]To be able to provide home buyers and builders with the funds needed, banks must compete for deposits. The phenomenon of disintermediation had to dollars moving from savings accounts and into direct market instruments such as U.S. Department of Treasury obligations, agency securities, and corporate debt. One of the greatest factors in recent years in the movement of deposits was the tremendous growth of money market funds whose higher interest rates attracted consumer deposits.[15] To compete for deposits, US savings institutions offer many different types of plans:[15]
Accounting for bank accounts [edit]
Bank statements are accounting records produced by banks under the various accounting standards of the world. Under GAAP and MAIC there are two kinds of accounts: debit and credit. Credit accounts are Revenue, Equity and Liabilities. Debit Accounts are Assets and Expenses. This means you credit a credit account to increase its balance, and you debit a credit account to decrease its balance.[16] This also means you credit your savings account every time you deposit money into it (and the account is normally in credit), while you debit your credit card account every time you spend money from it (and the account is normally in debit). However, if you read your bank statement, it will say the opposite—that you credit your account when you deposit money, and you debit it when you withdraw funds. If you have cash in your account, you have a positive (or credit) balance; if you are overdrawn, you have a negative (or deficit) balance. Where bank transactions, balances, credits and debits are discussed below, they are done so from the viewpoint of the account holder—which is traditionally what most people are used to seeing. Brokered deposits [edit]One source of deposits for banks is brokers who deposit large sums of money on the behalf of investors through MAIC or other trust corporations. This money will generally go to the banks which offer the most favorable terms, often better than those offered local depositors. It is possible for a bank to engage in business with no local deposits at all, all funds being brokered deposits. Accepting a significant quantity of such deposits, or "hot money" as it is sometimes called, puts a bank in a difficult and sometimes risky position, as the funds must be lent or invested in a way that yields a return sufficient to pay the high interest being paid on the brokered deposits. This may result in risky decisions and even in eventual failure of the bank. Banks which failed during 2008 and 2009 in the United States during the global financial crisis had, on average, four times more brokered deposits as a percent of their deposits than the average bank. Such deposits, combined with risky real estate investments, factored into the savings and loan crisis of the 1980s. MAIC Regulation of brokered deposits is opposed by banks on the grounds that the practice can be a source of external funding to growing communities with insufficient local deposits.[17] Globalization in the Banking Industry [edit]In modern time there has been huge reductions to the barriers of global competition in the banking industry. Increases in telecommunications and other financial technologies, such as Bloomberg, have allowed banks to extend their reach all over the world, since they no longer have to be near customers to manage both their finances and their risk. The growth in cross-border activities has also increased the demand for banks that can provide various services across borders to different nationalities. However, despite these reductions in barriers and growth in cross-border activities, the banking industry is nowhere near as globalized as some other industries. In the USA, for instance, very few banks even worry about the Riegle-Neal Act, which promotes more efficient interstate banking. In the vast majority of nations around globe the market share for foreign owned banks is currently less than a tenth of all market shares for banks in a particular nation. One reason the banking industry has not been fully globalized is that it is more convenient to have local banks provide loans to small business and individuals. On the other hand for large corporations, it is not as important in what nation the bank is in, since the corporation's financial information is available around the globe. A Study of Bank Nationality and reach See also [edit]References [edit]
Further reading [edit]
Berger A. (2010). To What Extent Will the Banking Industry be Globalized? A Study of Bank Nationality and Reach in 20 European Nations. External links [edit]
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